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Hark ye friend; you have been a burgher of this great city, what matter though you have lived in it five years or three; if you have observed the laws of the corporation, the length or shortness of the time makes no difference. Where is the hardship then, if nature that planted you here, orders your removal? You cannot say you are sent off by a tyrant or unjust judge. No, you quit the stage as fairly as a player does that has his discharge from the master of the revels. But I have only gone through three acts, and not held out to the end of the fifth. You say well; but in life three acts make the play entire. He that ordered the opening of the first scene now gives the sign for shutting up the last; you are neither accountable for one nor the other; therefore retire, well satisfied, for He, by whom you are dismissed, is satisfied too. — Meditations of Marcus Aurelius.
“The whole earth is the tomb of heroic men whose stories are graven, not only in stone above their clay, but abide everywhere, without visible symbol, woven into the stuff of other men's lives.”
Professor Kirk died at the Waikato Hospital, at 10 p.m. on Thursday, the 15th July, 1948. He had been transferred from Tauranga to Hamilton with leg fracture on a somewhat desperate hope of saving his life by an operation, an operation which it was found could not be attempted. He had expressed the wish that his body should be cremated, that the only ceremony should consist of a few words spoken by an old friend—and he had named Sir Thomas Hunter. It proved impossible for Sir Thomas to travel and I was asked, on behalf of his family and of Victoria University College, to speak at the cremation.
At noon on Saturday, the 17th July at the Crematorium of Waikomiti, Auckland, the remains of
It is thought inappropriate for us to meet and part without paying some tribute of respect, admiration and love for our old friend. We knew his humour, his scholarship, his loving kindness, his wisdom, but above all, the integrity of his soul and spirit.
We think of him first, perhaps, as the Professor, the man of science, for it was to science that he dedicated his life. The search for truth, the extension of its bounds was his mission and he followed the trail diligently and without faltering. “Sapere Aude,” the University motto was his also. It was part of the instinctive integrity of his spirit.
He had spent some years in the Department of Education as Inspector of Native Schools before, in 1903, he was appointed Professor of Biology at Victoria University College. He held that Chair for forty-two years with distinction, but with something more. He had to build his Faculty from very small beginnings and in temporary rooms, but he was able to inspire his students not only with his love of knowledge, but also with his own gentleness and loving kindness. Wisdom was to him more than gold and more than knowledge. His integrity of spirit was his legacy to his Department and to the College. No one has given more to Victoria University College and no one has been more richly rewarded in love and understanding. I speak today for the College in reverence and affection.
After the outbreak of the first World War came a fresh opportunity. Science, and especially biology, was no barren study unrelated to life and the Professor no pedant outside the sphere of the life of the common man. So he went into the military camps with the guile of the diplomat and the competence of the man of affairs. He cut through military routine, dealt with the fly menace and eliminated the disease due to fly contamination. In this way he rendered signal service to his country.
I speak today for many thousands of those throughout New Zealand who loved him; for his old students; for all, who, especially at the beginning, came under the spell of a great teacher and a great and generous spirit. His greatness and simplicity were reflected in that noble courtesy which belonged to the Pioneers.
“But most their desert Camelot They filled with knightly rays Of gentleness and courtesy Which fill for us our days.” —
W. F. Alexander .
I now commit his body to the elements and conclude with Kipling's words.
“Let us now praise famous men Men of little showing, For their work continueth And their work continueth Broad and deep continueth Greater than their knowing.”
Before launching into an account of the prospects offered in museums in this country for biologists it is necessary to explain the haphazard way in which our several large museums developed and the equally fortuitous way in which, until recently, they were staffed.
Of the four main institutions, Auckland was founded as a public museum by the local scientific body known as the Auckland Institute. For the first half century its Secretary and Curator was a botanist with wide interests, but it was not until 1914 that a zoologist was added to the staff. In 25 years of expansion since 1923 the Auckland Museum has increased its scientific staff, and at present both Director and Assistant-Director supervise sections of the Zoological collections. The senior scientific assistant is an ethnologist, and in addition there are a zoologist, geologist, and botanist with departmental responsibilities and graded salaries.
The Dominion Museum, formerly the Colonial Museum, was founded to house infant scientific departments of government, such as the Geological Survey and that of Colonial Analyst. Later, it was opened to the public and finally assumed its present function as a public museum. Since its staff developed past the stage of having a single omniscient director there have been varying numbers of biologists and seldom fewer than three. Now in process of re-organization delayed by the war, the Dominion Museum has at present three senior officers supervising zoological collections in addition to administrative duties, two additional zoologists, two assistant entomologists, and plans for filling vacancies in departments of ethnology, botany, and geology.
Museums in the South Island centres, with very fine collections, have been handicapped in staffing by most inadequate endowment and income. The Canterbury Museum, which is now emerging from this period, has at present one zoologist with special duties in entomology. Otago Museum, with some prospect also of stabilizing its income soon at a satisfactory level, has at present no scientific staff specializing in biological sciences.
Prospects of an improvement in the staffing of southern museums are good, and it is also likely that some uniformity of salary scale will be recommended by the recently formed Art Galleries and Museums Association of New Zealand. There remains a general weakness in that few museums are yet able to appoint junior assistants as trainees in departments already supervised by experienced seniors, but the next few years should see an improvement in this respect.
Within the limiting factors referred to above, the scope of work in Museums is varied. Public museums have as a primary duty education based on research. Education is through display and the more intimate public relation involved in dealing with enquiries and popular lecturing. The members of the scientific staff should, therefore, have some flair for one or other of these aspects of the work. Technical problems of display are looked after in larger museums by a specialist staff; but they in turn depend on the scientific staff for some selection of material and an outline of the story to be presented.
Successful display, however, is often the last step of a process that begins with collecting. This involves knowing what to collect, where to get it, and how to deal with it when collected. In New Zealand most museum biologists are their own collectors and some provision is usually made in budget and time-table for field work. From larger museums a small team sometimes can be sent out, with mutual advantage to its members. When a collection is brought back its permanent preservation must be attended to, and if identifications have not been possible in the field they must be done so that material can be classified. The next duty is storage in the case of study material and proper cataloguing as it is incorporated.
Because so many groups in New Zealand are yet imperfectly known, research in museums tends to be mainly taxonomic; and there is no doubt that it is in this field that museums are best able to supplement the work of other research institutions as well as satisfying a wide popular demand. This does not mean that other branches of biological enquiry are discouraged, but simply that, as routine duties involve the constant handling of collections, taxonomic problems are always cropping up. Work on morphology and life histories also can be carried out under museum conditions, but it is difficult except in ones own time to concentrate on work in the experimental fields of physiology, genetics, or economic biology.
I might sum up by saying that some specialist interest should be developed by a museum biologist, but that it should not outweigh a professional interest in collections and their care, nor in those broader aspects of natural history through which a museum maintains its reciprocal relations with the public.
The sea-urchin fauna of New Zealand is rather incompletely known, as the majority of the twenty-odd species recorded are rare or of very local occurrence. The key is constructed to make identification of species as easy as possible to the non-specialist, and consequently some rather unorthodox characters are utilised at certain points. For example, the method of distinguishing Cidaroid and Diademoid The recent decision of the International Zoological Congress to codify Diadema (in place of Centrechinus) requires the use of the ordinal name Diademoida instead of Centrechinoida as formerly.“Outlines of Zoology”), while other technical terms that are unavoidable are explained in the description of the figures. If a sea-urchin is found which does not appear to fit anywhere in the key the chances are that it is either an undescribed species or one of the very rare species; it should in any case be submitted to an appropriate institution for examamination. A collection of sea-urchins should be kept either in formalin or alcohol, or dried; some specimens at least should be kept with the spines intact.
Very large (up to 7 inches in length). Sub-littoral, rare, known only from northern coast (Fig. 17.). Brissus gigas
The literature is extremely scattered, and there is no single volume containing descriptions of New Zealand sea-urchins. For general information on echinoderms, Mortensen's “Echinoderms of the British Isles” will be found helpful. Some of the New Zealand species are illustrated and described in Mortensen (1921); Echinoidea of New Zealand and Auckland-Campbell Islands, Medd, Dansk, naturh. Foren., 73, p. 139. The Trans. Roy. Soc. N.Z. may also be consulted, and publications of the United States National Museum deal with Pacific sea-urchins.
The editorial committee has much pleasure in acknowledging the financial assistance given by the following organisations for the publication of plates: The Royal Society of New Zealand for the plates accompanying Dr. Allan's article, the Wellington Branch of the Federation of University Women for one of the plates accompanying Dr. H. B. Fell's article. Assistance in the cost of printing this number of “Tuatara” was given from the Publications Fund of Victoria University College.
Fig. 1.—Cidaroid type of plates. Ambulacral plates lie to the left, each bearing a small tubercle and a pair of pores for tube-feet. Interambulacral plates to the right, each bearing one very large tubercle, lying in the centre of an extensive ovoid bare, depressed area (the scrobicule). Magnification X 4.
Fig. 2.—Multiporous ambulacral plates of Heliocidaris tuberculata. Magnification X 4.
Fig. 3.—Diademoid structure of plates as in Pseudechinus huttoni. Ambulacral plates to the left, each carrying 3 large, and several smaller tubercles, and 3 pairs of pores. Interambulacral plates to the right, showing the alternating arrangement of plates with a horizontal row of large tubercles and those with tubercles arranged to form a Y-shape. Magnification X 4.
Fig. 4.—Evechinus chloroticus. Ambulacral plates to the left, showing broad poriferous portion, with pores arranged to form both both vertical and horizontal rows. Part of interambulacra to the right. Magnification X 2.
Fig. 5.—Umbrella-shaped spine of Goniocidaris umbraculum. Magnification X 2.
Fig. 6.—Arachnoides zelandiae, seen from upper (aboral) side, showing anus above near posterior border. Half natural size.
Fig. 7.—Arachnoides zelandiae, posterior view, showing flattened under-surface, domed above. Half natural size.
Fig. 8.—Peronella hinemoae, seen from upper surface. Anus not visible as it lies below. Half natural size.
Fig. 9.—Peronella hinemoae, posterior view, showing conical upper surface, and flattened lower surface. Half natural size.
Fig. 10.—Laganum depressum, seen from upper surface. Anus not visible as it lies below. Half natural size.
Fig. 11.—Laganum depressum, posterior view, showing convexoconcave upper surface, and flattened; lower surface. Half natural size.
Fig. 12.—Apatopygus recens, seen from above, showing anus lying in elongate depression on posterior part of upper surface. Natural size.
Fig. 13.—Apatopygus recens, posterior view, showing convex upper surface and concave lower surface. Natural size.
Fig. 14.—Spatangus multispinus, seen from above, showing anterior ambulacrum in a groove which notches the anterior margin, while the other ambulacra form petals flush with the surface of the test. Half natural size.
Fig. 15.—Echinocardium australe, seen from above, showing anterior ambulacrum in a groove, while the other four ambulacra have become confluent. Half natural size.
Fig. 16.—Brissopsis zelandiae, seen from above, showing anterior groove, while other ambulacra remain as distinct, sunken petals, not confluent. The petals are surrounded by a sinuous line of microscopic tubercles called a “fasciole”. Natural size.
Fig. 17.—Brissus gigas, seen from above, showing absence of an anterior notch, while the other ambulacra form long slender petals lying in deep grooves. A fasciole is also present. One quarter natural size.
Fig. 18.—Spine of Ogmocidaris benhami, showing serrated borders. Magnification X 5.
Fig. 19.—Echinocyamus polyporus, seen from below, showing centrally placed peristome and anus lying midway between peristome and posterior border. Natural size.
Fig. 20.—Echinocyamus polyporus, seen from above. Natural size.
The above figures show no more detail than is actually required for identification purposes. In the case of Figs. 6-17, 19 and 20, the tests are shown with the spines removed.
A whaling station is a place that appeals to the imagination of most people. Much of the interest is due to the enormous size of whales as compared with other mammals and the many adaptations for aquatic existence shown by whales. Probably some of the interest to New Zealanders is due to the large part whaling played in the early history of this country. Today, the only whaling station still operating in New Zealand, is that owned by Messrs. Perano at Te Awaiti, in Tory Channel, 18 miles from Picton.
From below a lookout not far from the station, the three chasers go out and make most of their catches in the Cook Strait area which is under observation by those watching for the whales from the lookout. There is an excellent account by Ommanney (1933) describing the methods used for catching whales in New Zealand from the early days of Bay whaling, to the modern type of fast motor launch chaser used by Messrs. Perano. After the whale is killed and inflated with air by the chaser, the mother ship, Tuatea, makes fast to the whale and tows it into the bay where the factory is situated.
The species of whale usually captured is the humpback (Megaptera nodosa). Its slow movements and habit of following regular coastal migration routes make it relatively easy to catch with modern facilities. After the general use of the explosive harpoon, which was first used on a large scale in the southern hemisphere by Norwegian whalers in 1904, the captures of humpbacks greatly increased. During the 1912 season over 10,000 humpbacks were taken from the Falkland Islands and South Georgia region alone. With the later extension of fast steam chasers and floating factory ships into the far south, the larger and faster blue and finback whales formed the main part of the total catch. Nevertheless 8,000 humpbacks were included in the total world catch as recently as 1937. By this time the effect of continuous overkilling was sufficiently alarming to produce a number of restrictions which give some protection to the humpbacks. In a series of International Conventions the areas in which floating factory ships could operate were determined. The humpback is now caught mainly by chasers operating from shore stations such as that at Tory Channel, and the number which can be captured in this way is far less than the totals taken formerly. It is the chase and operations on board ship or factory that are described most frequently in general accounts and books on whaling, but for a biologist there are many other items of interest which may be studied during whaling activities.
The main interest is the whale itself, but it is not until the whale is being hauled up the factory slipway that one has the opportunity
Along the under surface of the throat, there are about 24 long grooves which extend from the chin to well behind the flippers. In photos of humpback whales these grooves are very frequently taken to be a series of cuts presumably made for removing the blubber. The grooves serve to give elasticity to the floor of the mouth and to increase the mouth capacity for the intake of great volumes of sea water containing the small organisms which are strained out by the whalebone during feeding.
The whalebone itself is arranged in a series of plates about half an inch apart and placed at right angles to the jaw. There are 3-400 along each side arranged like the leaves of a book. The largest in the humpback whale are about 22 inches long and 9 inches wide at the base, from which they taper to a point, resulting in a triangular shape. Along the inner edge, each is frayed out to form a series of bristles resembling very coarse hair. The bristles from each plate become entangled with those from adjacent plates resulting in a coarse matted inner surface from the tip of the baleen up to the very narrow palate. This mat acts as a very efficient sieve. Evidence of its effectiveness has been found at Perano's station, where many gallons of food matter composed entirely of crustacea each less than half-aninch long has been found. This is considerably smaller than Munida (1 to 2 inches long) which forms the whalefeed in the Subantarctic waters, or the Euphasian krill (about 2 inches long) which provides the bulk of the food material for baleen whales in Antarctic waters.
Although the eyes are of large size (4 inches diameter) they appear very small in relation to the total size of the animal and are situated well back in the head just above the angle of the jaws. The nostrils, as in all whales, are situatedson the top of the head and have merged to form the blowhole.
There is no external ear, but a small slit like aperture marks the external ear opening. From this a narrow tube passes through the blubber, and near the under-side of the skull a tube can again be found, but with a considerably wider bore as it approaches the internal ear. If one attempts to follow out the type of communication between these two sections of tube, it soon becomes apparent that they are quite unconnected. There is a mass of completely closed tissue in the region where one would expect to find a continuous tube connecting
The exposure of the internal organs for removing the fat is probably the most interesting moment of the factory work for a zoologist. It conveys an impression of the enormous size of whales which is even more striking than seeing the complete whale at close quarters for the first time. Most people are familiar with the fact that whalebone whales range up to nearly 100 feet in length, but tend to overlook the fact that the internal organs must reach a proportional size. The heart in a 40 foot humpback whale is 5-6 feet long, and the dorsal aorta, is over 2 feet in circumference near the heart. In the gut, the intestine alone is over 200 feet long, and the liver weighs from 6-7 cwt. Most of the other organs are proportionately large, the main exception being the brain. Its circumference of 2 feet is so small that the dissected brain can almost be fitted inside the base of the whale's main blood vessel. The brain is much shortened being only 9 inches long, so it occupies only a very small portion of the skull which reaches 15 feet in length.
The internal organs show many close structural resemblances to those of land mammals, although a comparison of external appearances shows so many differences. The stomach, however, is complex and contains even more compartments than that of the cow or sheep. The kidneys are compound, each being composed of a large number of small kidneys or reniculi which are connected together by collecting ducts and connective tissue. It is only during the examination of internal structures that the vestigial pelvic bones and hind limbs can be seen. Two boomerang shaped bones 18 inches long are the only
In addition to the whales there are a number of associated organisms which present problems of interest that can be studied at a whaling station. On the skin of the whale, there are more barnacles than can be found on the hulls of most ships. The whale barnacles belong to different species from those found on ships, the commonest on the humpback whale being the sessile barnacle Coronula diadema which is 2 inches across and 1 ½ inches high. These are very firmly attached to the whale skin which projects into furrows on the under side of the barnacle. Before the whale is cut for flensing the barnacles have to be removed to avoid any chance of knives being damaged by their hard shell, and the use of considerable force with triangular headed iron bars is often required to pull them off. Their distribution is remarkably constant on each whale. The main patch is immediately under the chin where more than a hundred Coronula may be attached. Most callosities have a number attached and each of those along the anterior margin of the flippers usually carry several specimens, and some are found along the anterior edge of the tail flukes. The rest of the body, especially the upper surface is almost free from Coronula. Most of the Coronula have up to a dozen specimens of the stalked barnacle Conchoderma auritum attached. The latter grow to 3 or 4 inches long and hang like tassels from the Coronula, especially from those under the chin.
Among these barnacle masses, numerous whale lice about half an inch long can be found adhering very firmly by their sickle shaped claws. These are flattened amphipods which can be found singly or in groups over most of the ventral surface of the whale. As whale lice have no swimming stage they must spread from whale to whale by actual contact, probably during suckling of the young whales.
The only plants found in association with whales at Tory Channel whaling station, were numerous diatoms Licmophora lynbeyi which forms a green scum on the surface of some barnacles. Diatoms have been previously recorded from the skin of whales and attempts have
A close examination of the whale's internal organs shows a large number of internal parasites. There are roundworms, reaching 4 to 5 feet in length in the kidney, other species in the stomach and even in the baleen, while hookworms are often numerous in the intestine. The complete life cycles and intermediate hosts for these parasites are not yet known.
Other organisms not in direct contact with the whales are nevertheless present at the whaling station to prey on those parts of the whale which are rejected as being of no economic value. At the start of the season innumerable hagfish can be seen writhing over pieces of whale organs in the bay and boring their way into the tissue as they devour it. After several whales have been processed, the number of hagfish at the surface declines until none can be seen and it is presumed that they are lying gorged on the sea bottom. When the supply of whale refuse declines after a period of smaller catches, they again appear at the surface among any material still left. By torch light they could be seen at one period in a writhing mass of such density that their super-imposed bodies almost concealed the meat on which they were feeding. There was no evidence to support the allegation that hagfish sometimes bore into living whales.
Large numbers of seabirds are present throughout the season, and do great service in disposing of whale refuse. On entering the bay by launch at night, thousands of medium-sized black and white petrels, the Cape pigeons, can be seen moving about ceaselessly, and occasionally thudding against the windows after being blinded by the light from the launch. Their chattering sounds continue all night in the bay and dawn light reveals them in thousands right up to the slipway. Usually they are observed well away from land in New Zealand waters and nest mainly in the Antarctic area. During the day, they move further out from the factory and the numbers in the bay decline, as many go out to sea. Many of the larger scavenger, the Giant Petrel or Nelly, are also found. On some mornings several hundred could be seen in the bay, and many were so gorged that they were quite incapable of rising from the water until some of the food had been disgorged. A few albatrosses, both Royals and Wanderers, occur at intervals. Both the Red-billed and Black-backed gulls are present in thousands and become more and more in evidence as the day progresses with a reduction in numbers of the Cape pigeons, Nellies and Albatrosses. It is a most ludicrous sight to see a lone gull or Cape pigeon perched on the top of a floating piece of meat many times its own bulk, and vigorously attempting to ward off all other birds so that it can have the piece to itself. Nevertheless, the mass of bird life, as well as the hagfish, are very efficient in disposing of much whale refuse.
This article has been concerned solely with the biological material and information that can be gathered readily at a whaling station. Investigations at a whaling station can also give much indirect information about rate of growth, ageing, feeding and the seasonal movements of whales. Direct observations relating to these problems and whale behaviour and function, can only be made by a study of the living whale at sea, and by marking whales with small missiles fired into the flesh so that the markers can be recovered during flensing if the whale is later captured. Studies of this nature have been made, particularly by the Discovery Expeditions, and are still being continued. It is hoped that such studies will eventually answer many of the unsolved questions associated with the very complete adaptation of these mammals to life in the sea.
Lichens form a plant group apart, as the body consists of a fungus and an alga growing together to form the lichen thallus. The exact relations between the fungus and the alga are still subjects of discussion, but the group is morphologically so distinct that it may best be treated as a separate division of the plant kingdom (LICHENES, or if you will MYCOPHYCOPHYTA!) The division is split up into subdivisions, orders, families, genera and species, the classification being based primarily on the structure of the fungal fruit, and secondarily on the nature of the alga. A few tropical genera have fungal elements belonging to the HYMENOMYCETES, but the bulk are associated with ASCOMYCETES. These ASCOLICHENES are divided into
perithecium), and the (GYMNOCARPEAE) with an open fructification (apothecium).
The alga present belong either to the CHLOROPHYCEAE, “green algae”, or the MYXOPHYCEAE, “blue-green algae”. It is usually possible, simply by moistening the specimen, to decide to which group the alga of a particular lichen belongs, but in refined classifications one has to determine more closely the relationship of the lichen alga to the free-living alga.
Zahlbruckner (Pflanzenfamilien, 1926) recognised 54 families (35 in New Zealand), 375 genera (about 80 in New Zealand), and about 9700 species (over 600 in New Zealand). Very many more remain to be discovered, and probably hundreds in New Zealand.
Lichens are the most truly cosmopolitan group of plants, being absent only from areas covered by perpetual snow or water. They succumb, however, to the smoke of heavily industrialised areas. You can, if you care to risk the attention of the police, gather lichens on the walls of the Wellington Bank of New Zealand, but not on those of the London Branch. Arid deserts, humid forests, coastal spray-sprinkled rocks and ice-surrounded rocks of high mountains are all habitats yielding their species. The elegant little red thallus of Caloplaca elegans has been gathered a few feet above high-tide level on Rangitoto Island, and just below the summit of Mt. Tapuaenuku (9465 feet). The range of habitats is very great, even glass, iron, charcoal, leather, linoleum and tarred cloth are not immune. Xanthoira parietina (Fig. 38) will seize on and brighten a rock, an animal skeleton, or a tree trunk, while certain lichens are strictly confined to one particular habitat, e.g., certain species of Verrucaria do not live away from rocks periodically submerged by the tide. Limestone rocks and basaltic rocks have different assemblages of genera and species, and the ecology of lichens becomes fascinating once a reasonable knowledge of the genera and species has been gained.
The first important work on the lichens of New Zealand was that of Babington in Hooker's Flora Novae Zelandiae of 1885, based largely on collections made by Colenso and Lyall. In Hooker's “Handbook” of 1867, forty-four genera and 212 species were listed, many of which were referred to European species, but are now considered distinct. New species were described in the early volumes of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, especially by Knight, who built up a considerable herbarium. In 1888 Nylander published his Lichenes Novae Zelandiae, listing 371 species, 97 of which he considered to be identical with European species.
The study of our lichens then languished; meanwhile much critical work was being done in Europe and new conceptions of generic and species limits evolved. Of recent years local botanists have shown
Lichenes Novae Zelandiae, based on collections, largely those of the late J. S. Thomson of Dunedin. At present only a very few copies of this work are available in New Zealand. Large collections of Cladonia were sent to Sandstede, the outstanding authority on this genus. As a result local botanists can now pursue their studies with more confidence.
The best book in English for any one taking up the study of lichens is “Lichens” by the late Annie Lorraine Smith, 1921, in the “Cambridge Botanical Handbooks.” This deals with all aspects of the subject, is well illustrated, and should be in the libraries of all University Colleges. A useful short work, with good keys to the genera, is that of W. Watson, “The Classification of Lichens” which appeared in the New Phytologist, Vol. 28, 1929.
The two genera of this family—Sticta and Lobaria, are fairly readily grouped into sub-genera, which are now often treated as genera. There are over 50 species in New Zealand, all groups being represented
The last two may each be again divided according as the pseudocyphellae are white or yellow.
The genus is also represented by over 50 species in New Zealand. The different groups, some often treated as separate genera, may be keyed as follows:
Cladonia (Figs. 23, 29, 31) is represented by about 40 species in New Zealand, but there is considerable difference of opinion as to species limits in the genus, and some classifications would raise the number to about 70. The groups, or sub-genera, are fairly well defined as follows:
The student must understand that the forms of Cladonia are manifold, and no manageable key will provide for all possible combinations of characters. If desired a key to the more important species will be given later.
It is assumed that the student has a general knowledge of the structure of lichens. A rather full glossary is given, to serve the needs of subsequent articles. Illustrations will also be given with later articles.
Lichina, × 5.
Collema, × 20.
Leptogium, × 20
Peltigera, × ½.
Cyphella, × 200.
Pseudocyphella, × 200.
Lecanona, showing lobate squamules and cephalodia, × 4.
Perithecium.
Apothecium, with gonidia in thalline margin.
Apothecium, without gonidia in the thalline margin.
Apothecium, lecideine type.
Single-celled spore.
Apothecium, showing (a) thalline margin; (b) proper margin; (c) epithecium; (d) thecium; (e) ascus; (f) parathecium; (g) hypothecium.
Cephalodium, on normal thallus.
Soredium.
Soralium.
Isidia.
Two-celled spore.
Usnea, transverse section showing central chondroid cylinder.
Cortex, with hyphae parallel to surface.
Cortex, with hyphae perpendicular to surface.
Anzia, showing spongy outgrowth below.
Cladonia, with basal squamules and podetium enlarging above into scyphus.
Peltigera, under surface showing “veins” and rhizines.
Cladonia (Clathrina), showing perforated branches of podetia.
Apothecia of lecanorine type.
Teloschistes, showing ciliate apothecia and branches.
Usnea rubescens, showing holdfast, × 2/3.
Cladonia scabriuscula, × 2/3.
Cladonia cornutoradiata, × 2/3.
Ramalina leiodea, × 2/3.
Sticta filix, × 2/3.
Sphaerophorus australia, × 2/3.
Sticta coronata, × 2/3.
Sticta impressa, × 2/3.
Lobaria adscripta, × 2/3.
Parmelia caperata, × 2/3.
Xanthoria parietina, × 2/3.
Collema leucocarpon, × 2/3.
The peculiar “strangling” habit of the rata, Metrosideros robusta A. Cunn., presents one of the most spectacular botanical phenomena to be found in New Zealand rain forests. Hooker had some doubts as to the habits of this tree when he described it in his Handbook (1864). He said it was “tall, erect (never? climbing). …” The popular conception of the tree by the early settlers was recorded by T. Kirk in 1872 when he wrote an article on rata to dispel some of the erroneous ideas then current. It was believed “that these immense trees were originally weak climbing plants, the stems of which increased in bulk until they killed the fostering tree which had supported them, and ultimately united to form a solid trunk. …” Kirk pointed out that the weak climbing plants belonged in fact to a different species, but, he said, “there can be no question that M. robusta is often found destroying trees by which it is supported. … The seeds of M. robusta are conveyed by birds, or blown by wind, amongst the epiphytic masses of Asteliads, Lycopods and Ferns, so abundant in the trees of the northern forests. In this situation the plant takes root and forms a small bush, for a time obtaining sufficient nourishment from the decaying vegetation in which it is growing, until the limited supply proving insufficient for the increasing demand, its roots stretch boldly down the trunk of the supporting tree, in search of that full supply which can only be obtained from the earth. Sometimes only a single root is given off, at others one main root with one or two weaker roots are to be seen, and again several roots of about equal dimensions are to be found, but in nearly all cases the different roots or stems are bound together by smaller roots, which are given off at right angles to the trunk of the supporting tree, and become united with the adjacent main roots by inosculation; not unfrequently masses of fibrous roots are developed, which perish with the increase of the main root, after serving their purpose of deriving temporary nourishment from the atmosphere. In course of time the various stems become inosculated (coalesced), to a greater or lesser extent, along their course, and the supporting tree is literally strangled by their iron embrace.”
In his account (1938) of the vegetation of the Tararua Mountains the present author discussed briefly certain relationships of the rata to its environment. “It is a light demanding large bushy ‘shrub’ which cannot exist on the forest floor (at least not on the Tararuas). Instead it commences its life as an epiphyte high up in the forks of the tallest trees. It then sends to the ground one or more slender roots, which finally become established in the soil and function as ordinary stems. These stems often surround the foster tree at its base and in
Dacrydium cupressinum, and the dead trunks of these are commonly to be seen. The author, however, was never able to detect any evidence of strangulation. The explanation of the death of the rimu is to be sought in its failure to compete successfully for light. Rimu, like rata, is also a strong light-demanding plant, as is evidenced by its habit of growth. Once, however, its crown is overtopped by the epiphyte it is doomed to die.”
Simpson and Thompson in a note (1942) on Metrosideros robusta took exception to the above observations. They said: “Other observers have suggested to us that root competition may be the destructive agent or a soil reaction set up by the closely matted fibrous roots. Kirk… states that puriri ( Vitex lucens), to increase its girth, bursts apart the stems of the epiphyte and, if this be accepted, shade can have little effect on that species.” This latter supposition is probably quite true, since puriri is a fairly shade tolerant species throughout its life. They further observe: “No force, indeed, other than compression could cause the distortion that appeared in rimu trunks, cut while still growing, enclosed and over-topped, from forest near Kaituna River in North Nelson. These … had grown deep, full-length, irregular flanges into the spaces afforded by the rounded stems of the epiphyte, and the distorted timber was sound.” From the above observations it is impossible to predict from which cause these particular specimens of rimu would have died if they had not been cut. It might be added in passing that death from old age must have claimed many trees whose decaying trunks are still being supported by the “epiphyte”. It is to be remembered that by nature of circumstances the foster tree of rata is already a tall forest tree while the latter is but a mere seedling on it.
The story of rata strangling its foster tree has appealed to popular imagination and is often repeated. It is of interest to read the note of warning in Laing and Blackwell's “Plants of New Zealand”. “This, at least, is the generally accepted explanation. It must, however, be confessed that some of the details of the process have hitherto escaped observation.” Rather strangely the note continues: “Apparently the only tree which can resist this iron hug is the puriri—the strongest and toughest of all New Zealand trees. It may sometimes be seen bursting the encircling roots of the epiphyte.” In the last two sentences one has the mighty strength bursting the clutches of the giant. Such observations probably have their origin in Kirk's paper, already mentioned. “The only tree which the rata seems powerless to injure is the puriri …; a fine example, surrounded by three or four large stems,
It must be observed that the strength of wood of the foster tree matters little, so long as it does not become crushed. To be able to break free, the foster tree must develop sufficient bursting power in the trunk through the osmotic pressure in the tissues laid by the cambium, to break the hug of the rata.
Observations requested—Season of heavy beech flowering.
A. L. POOLE, Botany Division, The Terrace, Wellington.
The species of Nothofagus, like their relative Fagus sylvatica of the Northern Hemisphere, reproduce themselves in forest formation only from periodic heavy flowering and seeding years. Intervening years do not yield sufficient fertile seed for effective reproduction. A heavy flowering of New Zealand beeches following the 1947-48 hot summer has commenced this spring. Observations on this flowering would be welcome and should be sent to Mr. Poole. Such points as the date a species commences and finishes flowering, flower colour, subsequent seed set, etc., should be noted. Observations on a particular group of trees or forest are more valuable than random observations.
Our beech forests are now the largest and most important indigenous forest, and information connected with the coming heavy flowering season would be extremely valuable.
C. McCANN, Dominion Museum, Wellington.
Mr. McCann is carrying out research on New Zealand reptiles, and requests that persons finding specimens forward them to him for investigation.
The porcupine fish and its allies are well-known for their ability to inflate themselves. Less well-known is the fact that sharks of the Genus Cephaloscyllium also possess this ability, so much so that in parts of the world the members of this genus are commonly known as “swell-sharks”. In this respect, they are unique among elasmobranchs. The Australasian literature dealing with Cephaloscyllium isabellum, the carpet-shark and the common species of this genus in our waters, contains peculiar and contradictory statements on the method by which this shark inflates its abdomen with water or, when taken from the water, with air.
Eugenie Clark (1), of the New York Zoological Society, has recently described the nature of the mechanism involved in the inflation of the abdomen in the closely related Cephaloscyllium uter. Here he finds that, as usual in sharks, the stomach is divided into two regions: the cardiac region which is attached to the oesophagus, and the pyloric region which follows the cardiac stomach and opens into the intestine. In C. uter, air or water is gulped into the cardiac portion of the stomach and stored there since this portion of the stomach can be closed off from the oesophagus by a strong sphincter muscle, and from the pyloric portion of the stomach by a second sphincter muscle. Air or water cannot pass beyond the second sphincter and escape into the intestine. The cardiac portion of the stomach is not attached ventrally to the body-wall. As it fills, this portion of the stomach is free to extend in all directions.
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