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Tuatara aims to stimulate and widen interest in the natural sciences in New Zealand, by publishing articles which (a), review recent advances of broad interest; or (b), give clear, illustrated, and readily understood keys to the identification of New Zealand plants and animals; or (c), relate New Zealand biological problems to a broader Pacific or Southern Hemisphere context. Authors are asked to explain any special terminology required by their topic. Address for contributions: Editor of Tuatara, c/o. Victoria University of Wellington, Box 196, Wellington, New Zealand. Enquiries about subscriptions or advertising should be sent to: Business Manager of Tuatara, c/o. Victoria University of Wellington, Box 196, Wellington, New Zealand.
is the journal of the Biological Society, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand and is published three times a year. Joint Editors:
Present knowledge of the New Zealand mosquito fauna (Culicidae) is briefly reviewed. The existing species are listed, with annotations, and a key to the last instar larvae is provided. Recent publications relating to the New Zealand fauna are listed.
The family Culicidae is treated here as including only the true mosquitoes. The non - biting midge families Dixidae and Chaoboridae, which are sometimes included as subfamilies of the Culicidae, are excluded. The New Zealand species belong to the subfamily Culicinae, the other two subfamilies usually recognised in the Culicidae (Anophelinae and Toxorhynchitinae) being absent.
The developmental stages of most of the native species are known with the exception of the eggs of some species and the larvae of the two species of Coquillettidia Dyar. Detailed descriptions and figures of most of the species are available and should be consulted in the publications of Belkin (1962, 1968). References to the literature up to the date of its publication are given in Belkin's (1962) work. The scope of subsequent papers, which are listed at the end of the present paper, is sufficiently
A key is given to the larvae, since this stage is most likely to be encountered in ecological investigations. The males are often most readily obtained by rearing from the larvae or pupae, and both sexes obtained in this way can be correlated with their larvae without possibility of error. Techniques for the collection, rearing, and study of mosquitoes are given in the paper by Belkin et al (1965).
Adult mosquitoes are distinguishable from nearly all other Diptera Nematocera in New Zealand by the possession of a long slender proboscis. The only insects likely to be confused with them are two rather rare rostrate species of Elephantomyia Osten Sacken (Tipulidae) which differ from the mosquitoes in venation. The sexes in the Culicinae are distinguishable by differences in the external genitalia and, with some exceptions, by the longer maxillary palpi and strongly plumose antennae of the males.
The pupae are comma-shaped in lateral view. The large cephalothoracic region bears laterally on the dorsum two respiratory organs (trumpets), and the abdomen bears two terminal paddles which enable the pupa to ascend to or descend from the water surface. The pupae of the Dixidae and of some Chironomidae which may be found in the same ground pools are similar to those of the Culicidae but usually differ in the form of the trumpets and paddles.
The larvae of the Culicinae are likely to be confused only with the, so far unknown, larvae of a rare species of Corethrella Coquillet (Chaoboridae). The known larvae of this family also possess a notably wider thorax, a subterminal respiratory siphon on the abdomen and anal gills, but lack mouth-brushes and have prehensile antennae which are inserted close together on the front of the head. The fully grown larvae of the largest native mosquitoes may be up to 12 mm. in length. The four larval instars are generally similar except in size. Most larvae move freely in the water, from which they filter micro-organisms and organic particles by means of their mouth brushes. None of the native species has predacious larvae. Most of the larvae breathe at the water surface through the respiratory siphon, but those of Mansonia Blanchard and Coquillettidia insert their modified siphons into the submerged stems or roots of aquatic plants and obtain air from the plant tissues.
The eggs are usually elongate-ovoid or fusiform in shape and about 1 mm in length. Those of Culex L. and of some species of Culiseta Felt and Mansonia and Coquillettidia are aggregated into rafts which float on the surface of the water Those of most other
An extensive literature exists and there is much detailed information on the physiology and habits of mosquito species — particularly those, like Anopheles spp. and Aedes aegypti L., which are important disease vectors. The only native species which has been investigated in any detail is Opifex fuscus Hutton (McGregor 1963, 1965; Haeger and Provost 1965; Provost and Haeger 1967), which is remarkable for its morphology and the unusual habit of the males of capturing the female pupae before the emergence of the female.
Under summer temperature conditions the duration of the egg and pupal stages of the more common native species may be only two or three days, and that of the larval stage two or three weeks. Lower temperatures slow the rate of development. Most species probably breed throughout the year but with greatly slowed larval development during winter. None of the native species is known to have an obligatory winter diapause in any developmental stage, though the adults of Maorigoeldia argyropus Walker have been reported to live through the winter in the northern part of its range. Few or no species breed above 2,000ft. and none above the bushline.
Most species breed in standing water in pools on the ground. In the larger permanent bodies of water, which are likely to have a varied predator fauna, the larvae are usually marginal or in areas where weeds or algal mats afford protection. A few species may occur amongst vegetation in small slow-flowing streams or ditches, or at the sides of larger rivers. Culex pervigilans Bergroth, in particular, rapidly takes advantage of temporary ground pools caused by disturbance of the soil by man. Most species breed in fresh water but several are confined to saline or brackish water. One species breeds in thermal areas in highly mineralised water which may be warmer than normal. Two species breed in treeholes and one breeds in water-holding leaf axils of terrestrial or epiphytic plants such as Collospermum spp. None is so far recorded from crab-holes.
The reduction in the size of the anal gills in species living in water with a high mineral content is apparently correlated with their osmoregulatory function. The shortened gills of the Culex in thermal waters suggest recent derivation from a more elongate form like that of C. pervigilans, but the semi-globose gills of the Aedes spp. of saline waters appear to be a longer - established character. The large size and more abundant tracheation of the gills of Maorigoeldia argyropus is apparently correlated with the longer submergence periods of this larva and an increased function in extracting oxygen from the water.
Only the females take blood meals and they may obtain these from man, animals, or birds. There are also records, outside New Zealand, of their biting fish (mudskippers) and frogs. Both sexes, however, may feed on plant secretions such as nectar. It is not known for most of our species whether a blood meal is a prerequisite to the maturation of the eggs, but Opifex fuscus can lay its first batch of eggs without a blood meal (Haeger and Provost, 1966). Not all species are attracted to man or come indoors. Most are night biters, except A. notoscriptus.
The duration of adult life of most species is not known precisely.
There is no evidence that the flight range of any of the native species is more than one or two miles.
None of the common endoparasitic organisms in mosquito larvae elsewhere (fungi such as Coelomomyces, protozoa such as Thelohania and nematodes such as Agamomermis) is recorded in New Zealand. An ectoparasitic mite and an epizoic ciliate protozoan (Vorticella) have been recorded on the larvae. There is no record of endoparasites of the adults in New Zealand. A mite occurring on adults may be ectoparasitic or phoretic. The most effective natural control of larvae and pupae is attributable to the larger predators such as ducks, frogs, fish (Galaxias, Gobiomorphus), aquatic Hemiptera (Anisops, Notonecta), and aquatic Coleoptera (Rhantus).
Most of the native species are nocturnal biters which cause some annoyance to man and also to domestic animals. None of the major mosquito-transmitted diseases such as malaria, filariasis or dengue fever is endemic in New Zealand. The anopheline vectors of malaria are absent, and while some of the existing culicine species might act as vectors of filariasis or dengue, temperature and other conditions in New Zealand are probably unsuitable for the maintenance of an endemic cycle of transmission of these diseases. The first record of an insect borne disease of man and animals in New Zealand is that of Ross et al (1963). They demonstrated that Culiseta tonnoiri (Edwards) and Culex pervigilans were vectors of an arbovirus in Westland.
The control of mosquito breeding is usually achieved by the elimination of permanent breeding places by drainage, or by their periodic treatment with larvicides. Species which are vectors of disease, and enter dwellings may be attacked by the use of residual insecticide sprays in the dwellings. The breeding places of the predominant and most widespread pest species in New Zealand, Culex pervigilans, are well known and readily found, but those of Culiseta tonnoiri, a pest species throughout the West Coast of the South Island, have proved difficult to locate.
Three non-endemic species which have restricted distributions in New Zealand have been claimed as accidental introductions. This is probably true of the cosmopolitan Culex quinquefasciatus Say and may be true of Aedes australis (Erichson) and Aedes notoscriptus (Skuse), but is difficult to prove or disprove.
The geographical distribution of related species and genera outside New Zealand shows the New Zealand fauna to have affinities with those in areas to the north of New Zealand, especially Australia. There are no apparent relationships with the South American fauna. The endemic genus Opifex has long been considered to be primitive in its characters and the related subgenus Ades (Nothoskusea) may also be primitive. Belkin (1962) considered that the primitive element in the New Zealand Culicidae was more extensive and included the endemic genus Maorigoeldia, the endemic Austromansonia subgenus of Coquillettidia and the endemic species of Culiseta (Climacura). The latter subgenus has an unusual distribution (Australia, New Zealand and Eastern North America) which parallels that of the Amphibia (Amphicoela) and some plant taxa such as Thismia (Burmanniaceae).
The annotations for each species are in the following order:—
quinquefasciatus Say, 1823. (Mississippi R.). Cosmopolitan; Auckland Province north of Coromandel and Waitomo; polluted water; domestic; Belkin, 1962, 1968—L, P, F, MG.
pervigilans Bergroth, 1889. (Greymouth). Endemic; Kermadec Is., throughout North and South Is., Chatham Is., Auckland Is.; ground-pools (sometimes brackish), vegetation on stream margins, artificial containers; often domestic but not exclusively so; Belkin, 1962, 1968 — L, P, F, MG.
rotoruae Belkin, 1968. (Rotoruai. Endemic; Ngawha (N. Auck.)
asteliae Belkin, 1968. (Rangitotos.). Endemic; islands of Collospermum spp.; sylvan; Belkin, 1968 — L, P, F, MG.
tonnoiri (Edwards), 1925, (Waihol). Endemic; disjunct distribution, Waipoua Forest and Waitakere Ra. only in North Is., throughout high rainfall western areas in South Is; ground-pools; sylvan; Belkin, 1962 — L, F: Dumbleton, 1965 — P, MG: Belkin, 1968 — L, P, F, MG.
novaezealandiae Pillai, 1966, (Tahakopa) (? = tonnoiri). Endemic; restricted distribution South East Otago; ground-pools; coastal flax swamps; Pillai, 1966 — L, P, F, MG.
iracunda (Walker), 1848. (New Zealand). Endemic; throughout North Island and northern half of western South Is.; permanent ground-pools or swamps with aquatic vegetation; rural; Belkin, 1962 — F, MG: 1968 — P, F, MG.
tenuipalpis (Edwards), 1924. (Ohakune). Endemic; throughout North Is. and western South Is.; permanent ground-pools or swamps with aquatic vegetation; rural; Belkin, 1962 — F, MG.: 1968 — P, F, MG.
fuscus Hutton, 1902. (Wellington). Endemic; Kermadec Is., Three Kings Is., throughout North and South Is., to Dunedin and Martins Bay; brackish or saline rock-pools, occasionally coastal freshwater streams; rocky coasts; Belkin, 1962, 1968 — L, P, F, MG.
australis (Erichson), 1942. (Tasmania). Australia and Lord Howe and Norfolk Is.; Stewart Is., Eastern coast of Southland and Otago, South Westland; brackish or saline rock-pools or ditches; rocky coasts; Belkin, 1962, 1968 — L, P, F, MG.
chathamicus Dumbleton, 1962. (Chatham Is.). Endemic; Chatham
notoscriptus (Skuse), 1889. (Sydney). New Guinea, New Caledonia, Australia; North Auckland, Auckland City, Coromandel, Te Puke and Gisborne in North Is., Nelson City in South Is.; tree-holes, also artificial containers and occasionally in Astelia leaf-bases; sylvan, sometimes semi-domestic; Belkin, 1962; 1968 — L, P, F, MG.
antipodeus (Edwards), 1920. (Auckland). Endemic; throughout North and South Is., Stewart Is.; freshwater ground-pools; rural Belkin, 1962, 1968 — L, P, F, MG: Marks and Nye, 1963 — L, P, F, MG.
subalbirostris Klein and Marks, 1960. (Invercargill). Endemic; east coast of Otago and Southland, Stewart Is.; freshwater ditches and ponds; coastal and subcoastal; Belkin, 1962 — F.: Marks and Nye, 1963 — L, P, F, MG: Belkin, 1968 — L, P, F, MG.
argyropus (Walker), 1848. (New Zealand). Endemic; discontinuous throughout North and South Is.; tree-holes, occasionally tanks or other artificial containers; sylvan; Belkin, 1962, 1968 — L, P, F, MG.
(The general aspect of a culicine larva is illustrated by the text figure and the characters used in the key are indicated on various figures on the two plates.)
(1) Siphon longer than wide, sub-cylindrical or truncate-conical; pecten teeth present, usually many in well-defined pecten; apical valves separate, small (Fig. 11). Lateral comb scales of 8th segment not in single row (except (2) Siphon as wide as long, fused with the valves; without pecten teeth; valves fused, as long as siphon, narrowed and denticulate apically (Fig. 2). Lateral comb scales in single row. Antennae twice as long as head, antennal hair at less than half-length (Fig. 3) (generic characters, larvae of the 2 New Zealand species unknown) (2) Anal gills scarcely evident or small, not longer than wide, semi-globose (Fig. 4). (Siphon with 1 pair of ventro-lateral hairs) (3) Anal gills prominent longer than wide, usually tapering to pointed apex (Fig. 1). (3) Pecten with only 2 or 3 teeth; dorsolateral (middle) siphon valve with long hair (Fig. 6). Antennal hair single. Pecten with many teeth in definite row: dorsal-lateral siphon valve without a long hair. Antennal hair branched. (4) Pecten teeth in continuous series to nearly mid-length of siphon, their bases not contiguous (Fig. 7). Ventral brush with 9 pairs of hairs. (5) Siphon with one pair of ventro-lateral hairs Siphon with more than one pair of ventro-lateral hairs, or several short median-ventral hairs. (6) Antennal hair and head-hair 5 both single (Fig. 8). Siphon index (length: width at mid-length) 2 (Fig. 9), shorter
Antennal hair and head-hair 5 both branched (Fig. 10). Siphon index 3, longer than anal segment plus gills. Dorsal and ventral gills subequal in length. (7) Pecten teeth extending in continuous series to near ventro-lateral siphon hair at mid-length (Fig. 11). Head hair 6 single (Fig. 10). Pecten teeth in continuous series to one-third length, an isolated tooth near base of ventro-lateral siphon hair at two-thirds length (Fig. 12). Head hair 6 2-branched. (8) More than 6 pairs of longer ventro-lateral siphon hairs, an equal number of long dorso-lateral hairs; siphon strongly tapered; 4-6 pecten teeth (Fig. 13). Anal gills rounded apically. Ventral brush with 1 pair of hairs. Antennal hair near mid-length, single. Head-hairs 5 and 6 many-branched (Fig.14). Not more than 6 pairs of ventro-lateral siphon hairs, dorso-lateral siphon hairs, if present, very short; siphon slightly tapered; pecten teeth 8 or more. Anal gills with pointed apex. Ventral brush with at least 5 pairs of hairs. Antennal hair beyond mid-length, many branched. Head-hair 5 many-branched, 6 single or many-branched. (9) Scales of lateral comb in single row. Siphon with baso-ventral hair present; ventral siphon hairs in median line, unpaired; dorso-lateral hairs present; all hairs shorter than siphon width, single or 2-branched (Fig. 15). Head-hair 6 long, single (Fig. 16).(10) Scales of lateral comb not uniseriate, in sub-triangular area. Siphon without baso-ventral hair; ventro-lateral siphon hairs paired, longer than siphon width, branched; dorso-lateral siphon hairs absent. Anal gills without sub-basal constriction. Head-hair 6 many-branched. (10) Lateral comb with 18-20 scales; basal denticulations of pecten teeth 0-1; anal gills with sub-basal constriction. Lateral comb with 25-29 scales; basal denticulations of pecten teeth 2-3; anal gills without sub-basal constriction. (11) Mental plate Mental plate — a median structure on the anterior margin of the ventral surface of the head capsule at about mid-length, requiring examination of slide mount under compound microscope. (12) Siphon index 4.0-5.0; usually with 5 pairs of ventro-lateral hairs, pecten usually reaching basal hair (Fig. 18). Anal gills shorter than saddle. Siphon index 6.5-7.0; usually with 4 pairs of ventro-lateral hairs, pecten usually not reaching basal hair (Fig. 19). Anal gills much longer than saddle. (13) Mental plate with 8-9 teeth on each side. Siphon straight-sided, index 8.5-10, pecten reaching one-sixth length (Fig. 20). Anal gills subequal in length. Mental plate with 10-11 teeth on each side. Siphon slightly convex-sided, index not more than 5; pecten reaching one-third length (Fig. 21). Dorsal gill longer than ventral.
Culiseta. Antennae not longer than head, antennal hair at half-length or beyond.Coquillettidia spp.
Opifex fuscus HuttonAedes (N) chathamicus Dumbleton Pecten teeth extending to about one-third length of siphon, basal teeth separate, distal teeth with bases contiguous. (Fig. 5). Ventral brush with 7 pairs of hairs. Aedes (H.) australis (Erichson)Aedes (F.) notoscriptus (Skuse)Aedes (O.) antipodeus (Edwards)Aedes (O.) subalbirostris Klein and MarksMaorigoeldia argyropus (Walker)Culiseta (Cl.) tonnoiri (Edwards)Culiseta (Cl.) novaezealandiae PillaiCulex (C.) rotoruae BelkinCulex (C.) pervigilans BergrothCulex (C.) asteliae BelkinCulex (C.) quinquefasciatus Say
AlthoughMarchantia polymorpha L. is widespread as a weed in gardens of the northern hemisphere, particularly on damp walls and paths and on burnt-over ground, it is not known to be established in New Zealand in its typical form. However, within recent years a variety resembling aquatica Nees has become a nuisance in humid glass-houses and shade-houses in the North Island and in some cases is even more troublesome than Lunularia. Its initial establishment as far as can be determined is to be associated with the use of imported peat in potting mixtures and of imported peat pots together with the maintenance of high humidity. But it may have arrived in New Zealand in various ways and on more than one occasion.
Ever since M. polymorpha was recognised as a species, it has been known to comprise a number of varieties and forms. Nees (1838) considered var. aquatica to be a habitat form whereas Müller (1951-8) termed it a variety. Burgeff (1943) on the basis of his numerous culture and breeding experiments considered it to be sufficiently well-defined to merit the rank of a separate species. In the present paper it is being treated as a variety but the fact that it has been considered to be a species indicates that morphologically it is a fairly constant form. It may also be biochemically distinct, for Tucker (1963) reported that the thallus of var. aquatica contains a specific antigenic protein in contrast to that found in the typical form of M. polymorpha.
A description of typical M. polymorpha can be obtained in many of the textbooks of botany and bryophyte floras which have been written in the northern hemisphere, for example Smith (1955) and Müller (1951-8). However, since var. aquatica differs from the
The membranous thallus is up to 8 cm long and up to 1.5 cm in width with the margin as a rule somewhat crinkled. Forking occurs at a wide angle, at intervals of from 1 to 3 cm, and either the two branches grow equally so that the plant tends to form a rosette or one overtops the other and dominates the growth. The upper surface is translucent green or yellowish-green in colour and non-glossy, with the centre line, where air-chambers are lacking, appearing colourless near the apex and dark and sunken further back. Under a lens the air-chambers are clearly delineated and are as a rule rhomboidal to hexagonal in shape but towards the mid-line of the thallus they are much extended in a lengthwise direction. The under surface is green at first but in older parts becomes magenta or brown, particularly near the centre line. It carries rhizoids of several types including smooth-walled ones of diameter 24 to 45/mic., and tuberculate ones of diameter 7 to 42/mic. with walls either straight or crenulate and sometimes tinged with magenta. The internal thickening of the wall may be in the form of rounded pegs, jagged pegs or a helical band. The rhizoids as a rule do not grow directly downwards into the soil but tend to collect into a slender, magenta-brown strand at the mid-line and then to pass backwards parallel to the thallus for some distance. On the under surface, too, are 3 series of scales which are usually colourless and difficult to see (Fig. 1.). The marginal scales tend to project beyond the edge of the thallus; they have at their tips a zone of cells with colourless, mucilaginous contents which later may turn brown; the cell-walls throughout the scale may turn brown also. The laminar scales may be little evident or may occur in an irregular double row. The median scales carry a broadly cordate appendage, 0.3 to 0.4 mm in width, whose cells gradually increase in size towards the centre (Fig. 4). Cells on the edge tend to project giving the appendage an irregularly dentate margin, and some 4 to 9 deeper cells each contain a large oil body.
Cupules (gemma-cups) containing gemmae lie on the upper surface along the centre line of many thalli, being formed particularly when the thallus is young (Plate 1). They are 2.5 mm in diameter and 2 mm high, cut on the rim into triangular lobes with ciliate margins (Fig. 6). On the outer surface of the cupule there are projecting papillae. Müller (1951-8) notes the absence of gemmacups in var. aquatica. This occurs in New Zealand chiefly in established plants bearing archegoniophores.
In transverse section the thallus is up to 0.15 mm deep at the midline, and outwards from this increases temporarily to a depth of up to 0.16 mm, and then for most of the distance to the margin has a
These are said to be produced infrequently (Burgeff, 1943). This may be due partly to the fact that thalli rarely get the chance to become sufficiently established to enable them to pass beyond the juvenile stage, for on a number of plants observed in glasshouses in New Zealand there were gametophores. As in other Marchantia species the plants are dioicous.
Antheridiophores were present from February until April, at which time new ones were still forming. Each has a green or brown stalk up to 2 cm high and a flat-topped head, up to 1 cm in diameter, with 8 lobes green in colour except for a broad, colourless margin. Short projections from cells on the sides of the lobes make the margin here denticulate. On the underside of the head are colourless scales.
Archegoniophores were found from February until April, appearing in a lateral position on the main thallus terminating a short arrested lobe; for after their initiation the other branch of the fork continues to grow forward strongly. They are delicate, dainty structures (Plate 1). Each has a slender stalk, up to 4.5 cm high, which at first is green and later dull-brown, and a head up to 1 cm in diameter with 9 narrow, terete rays, of diameter 0.6 to 0.8 mm, slightly decurved. Papillae are abundantly present on the surface of the rays. On the under side of the head between the rays are 8 receptacles, each with several archegonia at first and with sporogonia later, and each enclosed by 2 boat-shaped valves which are deeply lobed and fimbriated on the edge (Fig. 5). The sporogonia when ripe have bright yellow capsules containing smooth, yellow spores of diameter 8 to 12 mic. untermixed with bispiral elaters.
In most cases M. polymorpha var. aquatica will be found in the vegetative state. Then the dark centre-line is particularly distinctive
Marchantia species indigenous to New Zealand (Campbell, 1965). In addition, it is readily distinguished from the thallus of M. berteroana or M. foliacea by the thin texture, by the non-glossy upper surface and by the projecting marginal scales. The appendages of the median scales lack the border of small, thin-walled marginal cells as found in M. berteroana. The third indigenous species, M. macropora, with its rough surface and elevated air-pores is easily recognised. Gemmacups and antheridiophores of M. polymorpha var. aquatica resemble those of M. berteroana and alone are not distinctive. The archegoniophores somewhat resemble those of M. berteroana but are distinguishable by their slender form and the papillate surface of the rays.
In Part One (Tuatara 15: 60-74, 1967) we were mainly concerned with general views of the canopy and interior of the forest. In this section we will concentrate on problems involved in photographing individual trees or parts thereof and groups of smaller plants.
Good specimens should be looked for at the edge of the forest, in large clearings within the forest or on the roadside, (Fig. 1) where access and lighting conditions are likely to be favourable.
Plain or subdued backgrounds are preferable to those which include much fussy or conflicting detail (Fig 3). A plain blue sky is best, particularly if there are small groups of white cloud to break up large areas of unrelieved monotone.
Most trees (individually or in small groups) should be photographed at eye level, a height from which we are accustomed to seeing them, and which also usually ensures that they will be raised clear of any distracting background.
When all else fails, it may still be possible to overprint or lighten the background during enlarging to bring about a difference in tone between the subject and its surroundings.
Foregrounds too are important, and yet are frequently overlooked. One should not allow any more foreground at the bottom of the final print than is sufficient to give the picture stability.
To reveal maximum texture in the subject, as well as its general shape, the horizontal lighting angle should be roughly between 45° to 90° to the line of vision and the vertical angle at approximately 45° to the ground. Low level lighting is more suited to the special effects of pictorial photography. Bright sun slightly obscured by high white cloud provides the necessary quality in the shadows.
Equipment for this type of photograph can be fairly simple, preference being given to a standard or long focal length lens to avoid distortion. In spite of an abundance of sunlight, a tripod will still be useful. Exposures will be normal, allowing the use of a film of medium speed with a green or yellow filter.
A typical variation on the above would be the situation, perhaps in a small clearing, where we have ample sunlight but with very restricted room to manoeuvre (Fig 2), so that it is impossible to stand well back and photograph an individual tree by means of a normal focal length lens. This is at least one occasion when it will probably be essential to use a field camera with a wide angle lens. Owing to the very acute viewing angle distortion will be excessive so we must try to present as pleasing an image as possible on the ground glass screen. Also time spent in seeking out a position from which to get an uninterrupted view of the subject will not be wasted.
Here the subjects are parts of trees near ground level in situations where there is usually little room to manoeuvre (Fig. 4). This category differs from the last in two main respects—the camera-to-subject distance is considerably less and the quality of light completely different.
The lighting can be divided into low intensity or a mixture of low intensity with patches of brilliant sunshine. Often the patches of brilliant sunshine may be disregarded if they do not fall across some important part of the subject.
If we possess a wide angle lens, we may use it perhaps fifty per cent of the time — certainly more often than if we were interested in purely general views.
Focussing with semi close ups and close ups requires much careful attention. Whether or not we use minimum aperture, the arbitrary rule of a ‘third in’ will help to give maximum depth of focus. In the case of the single specimen, it is advisable to have at least the branches facing the camera as well as the trunk in
Close up photography can be very exacting, but for the most part it will consist of a number of techniques already mentioned.
As we are dealing with photographs taken within the forest interior, it will be assumed that all our subjects will be in complete or partial shade. In this section therefore emphasis will be on lighting. We may choose any one of the following:
(a) Existing lighting conditions with reflector
(b) Flash
(c) Fill in flash
(d) Simulated sunlight
(e) Bounced flash
(f) Umbrella flash
Owing to the small area to be included by the camera, any one of the above techniques will be satisfactory, but in most cases the first will be as good as any other and has the advantage of simplicity.
In this whole group, apart from the essentials, a good reflector is easily the most useful item of equipment; the best being a sheet of white plastic which for easy transport can be rolled up on a broomstick. An aluminium painted sheet or card is also suitable, but when used with colour it may produce a slightly blue colour cast especially when the aluminium reflects the blue of the sky. However, ordinary newspaper for this purpose is efficient, cheap and easily carried.
Unfortunately, the quality of lighting for close ups is extremely inconsistent and is subject to very rapid changes. We have, in fact, in an exaggerated form the lighting already described under semi close ups, and here it is even more necessary to bridge the gap between shade and patches of bright sunlight. Not only are reflectors invaluable for this purpose but over a small area they can be far more effective than will be the use of flash. Often it is possible to partially or completely block any direct sunlight falling on the subject, merely by holding some conveniently opaque object such as a coat or a piece of card between the sun and the affected area.
Flash may replace daylight completely, in which case we should use another weaker flash as a ‘fill in’, or a reflector. Care should be taken to keep the effect of the flash as natural looking as possible. This can be helped considerably by holding the main flash at arm's length and roughly at a vertical and horizontal angle of 45° to the subject, preferably with a white card on the opposite side as a reflector. A suitable method of softening the harshness of the
Generally, it is inadvisable to use flash as the main source of light when attached to the camera in the usual way. Often the result will be dull, uninteresting and lacking in form. It will also produce specular reflections of shiny objects such as leaves etc. These reflections are bad enough in black and white, but in colour they invariably take on a decided tinge of blue and they cannot be eliminated by the use of a polarizing filter.
‘Fill in flash’ The focal Encyclopedia of Photography states: ‘The normal procedure in practice (for arriving at proportion of sunlight to flash) is to set shutter speed and lens aperture as for an exposure to daylight only. Next divide the guide number of the flash bulb to be used by the lens aperture already selected. The resulting figure gives the flash-to-subject distance at which daylight and flash will illuminate the subject with equal intensity. If a relative intensity of 4 to 1 between daylight and flash is desired, the flash-to-subject distance must be doubled.’
‘Simulated sunlight’ To arrive at a relative intensity of 4 to 1 between flash and daylight calculate as above, but, instead of doubling the flash-to-subject distance, it should be halved and the aperture then reduced by two stops.
‘Bounced flash’ This method calls for an aperture approximately two stops larger than normal.
‘Umbrella flash’ is similar to the above in quality and treatment, and as the name implies, it is the result of aiming a flash at the inside of an open umbrella painted white or aluminium.
Epiphytes are rarely found within easy reach of the camera, and to photograph them it is frequently necessary to resort to the use of a telephoto lens (Fig. 6). Also only occasionally are we able to reach a level which will give us anything approaching a horizontal view. We must often be prepared to photograph the specimen from almost directly beneath.
NOTE: Outdoor flash requires the equivalent of up to one stop increase over that used in conjunction with any given guide number.
Once again the greatest problem will be lighting, and in a great majority of cases it will be necessary to use fill in flash. Even with a suitably diffused natural light, the chances are its direction will be completely wrong, and there will probably be insufficient light on the lower portion of the subject to effect the emulsion of the film. Electronic flash at this distance will be totally inadequate even for black and white, and we will be obliged to use a No. 2 clear flash bulb, or in the case of colour, a No. 2 blue. It follows that multiple flash will help still more to bridge the gap, and more yet if it is possible to use a narrow beam reflector for each bulb. Although a normal reflector spreads the beam of the flash far too much for efficiency, the expense of a really efficient narrow angle reflector could be out of all proportion to its use. Nevertheless for occasional shots of this nature multiple flash, although expensive, is still within reasonable limits.
The choice of film for this type of photograph is probably a matter of personal preference, but a rating of about 400 A.S.A. is essential.
(1) In most scientific photographs such as have been described, it is desirable to include some kind of a scale. In many closer shots a ruler is sufficient, but essentially it should be neatly and squarely placed in a position where it can be seen without drawing attention to itself. More distant views should include a human figure also discreetly placed and looking towards the centre of interest in preference to looking at the camera.
(2) Photographically the ‘part’ is often better than the ‘whole’. In other words it is not always necessary to include the ‘whole’ to show the subject to best advantage.
Economy in words in good journalism has a counterpart in good illustrating, whether it be in drawing, painting, linocuts, or etchings — not to mention photography. Taking this a step further it is often better to use one photograph instead of two, providing all the essentials are clearly shown. When publishing, this also has the practical advantage of eliminating the cost of unnecessary blocks. On the other hand, if we are convinced that in a particular instance we require a photograph of the whole as well as the part, we must try to ensure that the one complements the other. As far as possible too much duplication should be avoided.
(3) In cold weather one must be careful to check on possible fogging up of the lens. This trouble is usually more pronounced immediately on taking the camera out of the camera bag.
Ecologists And taxonomists have experienced difficulties in identifying these small crabs from early descriptions. Richardson (1949) provided the only workable key to date but it does have limitations. This article expands and corrects his key. For a list of relevant literature, more complete descriptions and ecological notes, the author's M.Sc. thesis, ‘Contributions to the Systematics and Ecology of the New Zealand Hymenosomidae’. M. J. Gordon, University of Auckland, 1966, may be consulted. This thesis is to be published as a monograph by the Oceanographic Institute of the D.S.I.R., Wellington.
In the Plates, the dorsal view of the carapace of each crab (drawn from the male except for a new genus), is represented 3 x normal size, except for Plate 1, which is 5 x normal size. A list of abbreviations used in labelling precedes Plate 1. Gordon (1940), and Garth (1958), emphasise the importance of the first male pleopod in identification, and Plate 7 shows a selection from the Hymenosomidae. A new monotypic genus is based on only four specimens; at present no adult male has been found so the pleopod remains unfigured. A table is provided showing the size range and known habitat of each species.
1 Upper carapace with a distinct gastro-cardiac groove and cervical grooves. Ischium of endopodite of third maxilliped subequal to or shorter than merus, subrectangular or subquadrangular. … Halicarcinus
(8 authenticated species)
Upper carapace without distinct grooves. Ischium of endopodite of third maxilliped longer than merus, triangular or trapezoid. … 2
2 Eyestalks entirely visible dorsally; folded antennules similarly visible. Epistome tiny, subcircular. Ischium of third maxilliped subtriangular. Dactylus of each walking leg lacking teeth. … This generic name is invalid and should be changed, as will be done in a later monograph.Hombronia
(1 species, Hombronia depressa Jacquinot (Plate 6, Fig. 3)
Cornea of eye, but not eyestalks, visible dorsally; folded antennules completely hidden. Epistome large and rectangular. Ischium of third maxilliped trapezoid, shaped like an axe-blade. Dactylus of each walking leg sparsely dentate.… 3
3 Carapace and rostrum completely fused, without suture between Rostrum with a ventral keel. Epistome almost as long as broad. Endopodites of third maxillipeds almost meeting in the midline. Dactylus of each walking leg with two large teeth adjacent to the claw, lacking other dentation. … Elamena s.s. (3 species)
Distinct suture between carapace and rostrum. Rostrum without keel or ridge ventrally. Epistome only half as long as broad. Endopodites of third maxillipeds gaping in the midline. Dactylus of each walking leg with a single large tooth adjacent to the claw, lacking other dentation. … Gen. nov. (1 species) (Plate 6, Fig. 2)
(Eight of these species are represented in New Zealand collections. H. ovatus has been reported here but no specimens are now in collections in New Zealand.)
1 Rostrum trilobate or tridentate, arising below the level of the upper carapace, the carapace rim being continuous above the rostrum, and the concavities between the lobules extending below this rim. … 2
Rostrum simple, or, if trilobate, the lobes arising from the level of the upper carapace, separated from it only by a suture. … 4
2 Three rostral lobes arising some considerable distance below the carapace rim, with the lateral lobes at the same level as the median lobe and not set at an angle to it. Antero lateral border of carapace convex. Dactylus of each walking leg with a single row of teeth or tubercles. … The nomenclature of this species is not clear; older names may be available.Halicarcinus innominatus Richardson
(Mainland, littoral) (Plate 2, Fig. 1)
Three rostral lobes arising just below the rim of the carapace, with the lateral lobes set at an oblique angle to the median lobe. Antero lateral border of carapace straight or concave. Dactylus of each walking leg with a double row of teeth. … 3
3 Rostral lobes widely separated, median rostral lobes shortest; lateral lobes sloping downward and outward. Neither of the two lateral angles of the carapace marked above by angles in the carapace rim. Dactylus of each walking leg armed with two irregular but distinctly separated rows of short, pointed teeth. … Halicarcinus planatus Fabricius
(Sub-Antarctic, littoral and deep water) (Plate 2, Fig. 2)
Rostral lobes close together; median lobe a little longer than the laterals; all lobes projecting straight forward. The first of the
Halicarcinus ovatus Stimpson (probably confined to Australia) (Plate 3, Fig. 1)
4 Rostrum distinctly trilobate or tridentate, the concavities between the lobes reaching almost to the suture beween carapace and rostrum.…
Rostrum simple, or trilobate only distally, any concavities between the lobes not reaching near the suture between rostrum and carapace. … 6
5 Rostrum extending past the eyes. Rostral lobes acute, sub-equal. Carapace longer than wide, narrowing anteriorly. Antero lateral border of the carapace straight or faintly convex. Two pairs of angles below the carapace rim, which is itself uninterrupted by the angles. Postocular lobe large. Dactylus of each walking leg with a single row of recurved large teeth. Chela of male equipped with the typical basal tooth on the movable finger. … Halicarcinus sp. nov. (deep water) (Plate 5, Fig.2)
Rostrum not projecting past the eyes. Rostral lobes rounded apically, the median one a fraction longer than the laterals. Carapace sub-circular. Antero lateral border of the carapace markedly concave. Two pairs of lateral teeth marked by angles in the carapace rim. Postocular lobe very small. Dactylus of each walking leg with two irregular rows of recurved narrow teeth. Chela of male without the typical basal tooth on the movable finger. … Halicarcinus cookii Filhol (littoral) (Plate 1, Figs. 1 & 2; Plate 3, Fig. 2)
6 Rostrum not projecting past the eyes, and forming a flat, almost horizontal platform. … Note on This species would seem to derive its name from the fact that the rostrum is variable, showing more variety of form than any other species dealt with by the author. The rostrum is generally trilobate, with the centre lobule longer than the others. Sometimes the concavities between the lobules approach the condition shown by Halicarcinus variusHalicarcinus cookii. However, the antero lateral borders of the carapace are straight or convex in Halicarcinus varius, contrasting with the markedly concave borders in Halicarcinus cookii, so that the two species may be separated by this feature if the collector finds difficulty in interpreting the key.Halicarcinus varius Dana (littoral and deep water) (Plate 3, Fig. 3)
Rostrum projecting past the eyes, and downwardly deflexed anteriorly. … 7
7 Rostrum always distinctly trilobate on the tip, projecting well past the eyes. Chela of male inflated laterally. Dactylus of each
Halicarcinus whitei Miers (littoral) (Plate 4, Fig. 1)
Rostrum simple, just projecting past the eyes. Chela of male of normal width. Dactylus of each walking leg lacking teeth or sparcely dentate. Male abdomen short, abnormal in narrowing evenly to the ultimate segment; male pleopod of unusual form. … 8
8 Rostrum deflexed only a little downward, convex from side to side above, narrowing to a blunt point anteriorly. Male first pleopod with a longitudinal row of long, sturdy setae subterminally, (as in Elamena), the tip forming a tiny knob. Dactylus of each walking leg curved, with a single blunt tooth adjacent to the claw. Everywhere covered with long, feathery hairs. … Halicarcinus pubescens Dana (Marine, littoral to deep water) (Plate 4, Fig 2; Plate 7, Fig. 2)
Rostrum strongly deflexed downward, concave from side to side above, narrowing only slightly anteriorly to a somewhat truncate but curved tip, sometimes with a scarcely visible trilobation on this tip. Male first pleopod very stout, with long, slender setae in tufts sub-terminally, the tip tapering normally. Dactylus of each walking leg straight, without teeth. Everywhere covered with short, fine setae. … Halicarcinus lacustris Chilton (fresh water) (Plate 5, Fig. 1; Plate 7, Fig. 3)
1 Rostrum broad, rounded; sub-rostral keel blunt. Carapace rounded. Legs without teeth except for one on the merus. … 2
Rostrum narrow, produced; sub-rostral keel with a strong spine extending from it. Carapace triangular. Legs with many sturdy teeth. … No specimen of this species has been seen by the author but it is apparently valid and a figure of its appears in Richardson's key.Elamena longirostris Filhol
2 Length of rostrum at least half as great as width. Keel deepest anteriorly, tapering behind. Prominent upwardly curved tooth on the distal end of merus of each walking leg. Carapace rim produced into two pairs of lateral angles. … Elamena producta Kirk (littoral) (Plate 5, Fig. 3)
Length of rostrum less than a third of width. Keel shallow, of equal depth throughout. Tooth on merus of each walking leg reduced, obtuse. Carapace rim without distinct angles. … Elamena sp. nov. (deep water) (Plate 6, Fig. 1)
aa — antenna au — antennule a.s. — antennal spine a.v.d. — aperture of vas deferens a.l.a. — anterior lateral angle e.s. — eye stalk k. — keel on rostrum p.l.a. — posterior lateral angle p.o. — postocular lobe rm. — rostrum r.r. — ventral ridge on rostrum
PLATE 1: Parts of hymenosomid (Halicarcinus cookii). FIG. 1: Dorsal view of the carapace and leg bases (The regions of the carapace are indistinct in many Hymenosomidae.) FIG. 2: Last segments of the male cheliped. FIG. 3: Posterior view of the left 3rd walking leg. FIG. 4: Ventral view of carapace and leg bases.
PLATE 2: FIG 1: Halicarcinus innominatus. A — dorsal view of carapace, B — dorsal view of rostrum, C — frontal view of rostrum with left antennule removed. FIG 2: Halicarcinus planatus. A — dorsal view of carapace, B — dorsal view of rostrum, C — frontal view of rostrum.
PLATE 3: FIG. 1: Halicarcinus ovatus. A — dorsal view of carapace, B — dorsal view of rostrum, C — frontal view of rostrum with left antennule removed. FIG. 2: Halicarcinus cookii (see also plate 1.) A — dorsal view of rostrum, B — frontal view of rostrum with left antennule removed. FIG. 3: Halicarcinus varius. A — dorsal view of carapace, B — frontal view of rostrum with right antennule removed, C — dorsal view of rostrum.
PLATE 4: FIG. 1: Halicarcinus whitei. A — dorsal view of carapace, B — dorsal view of rostrum, C — frontal view of rostrum with left antennule removed. FIG. 2: Halicarcinus pubescens. A — dorsal view of carapace, B — dorsal view of rostrum, C — frontal view of rostrum with right antennule removed.
PLATE 5: FIG 1: Halicarcinus lacustris. A — dorsal view of carapace, B — dorsal view of rostrum, C — frontal view of rostrum. FIG. 2: Halicarcinus sp. nov. A — dorsal view of carapace, B — dorsal view of rostrum, C — frontal view of rostrum with right antennule removed, D — angles at the side of the carapace which are usually sharp for this family. FIG. 3: Elamena producta. A — dorsal view of the carapace, B — frontal view of rostrum, C — lateral view of rostrum, D — left 3rd walking legs anterior view, E — tip of dactylus of walking leg.
PLATE 6: FIG. 1: Elamena sp. nov. A — dorsal view of carapace, B — frontal view of rostrum, C — lateral view of rostrum, D — left 3rd walking leg anterior view, E — tip of dactylus of walking leg. FIG. 2: Gen. nov. sp. nov. A — dorsal view of female carapace, B — lateral view of rostrum C — left 3rd walking leg, D — dactylus of walking leg of immature male, E — tip of dactylus of female. FIG. 3: Hombronia depressa. A — dorsal view of carapace, B — dorsal view of rostrum, C — dorsal view of female abdomen (this is a typical for the family 3rd segment is folded on itself so that half is visible dorsally, half ventrally and the abdomen cannot be lifted and straightened), D — tip of dactylus of walking leg showing two longitudinal rows of long fine setae.
PLATE 7: First Male Pleopods (whole pleopod x 27, tip further enlarged). FIG. 1: Halicarcinus varius (‘normal type’). FIG. 2: Halicarcinus pubescens. FIG. 3: Halicarcinus lacustris. FIG. 4: Elamena producta. FIG. 5: Hombronia depressa. Although the male pleopod of the new genus is not available the other 3 genera can be separated by the form of this pleopod. Aperture of Vas deferens terminal and elongate Halicarcinus.
Aperture of Vas deferens markedly subterminal Elamena.
Aperture of Vas deferens terminal and encircled by a tumid lip Hombronia.
Dr. Leonard Cockayne's ‘Vegetation of New Zealand’ appeared in two editions, the first in 1921 of 364 pages, 2 maps and 95 figures, the second in 1928 of 456 pages, 3 maps and 106 figures. These books would have been familiar texts to a much wider audience except that the number of copies in New Zealand has always been meagre. The first edition suffered from being produced in Germany soon after, or partly during, the first world war while the second appeared shortly before the financial depression of the nineteen thirties, the publisher's unsold stocks being finally almost wholly destroyed during world war two. A photographic reproduction of the second edition, dated 1958, is now generally available.
Place names are not listed in either edition but a comprehensive Index of Plant Names occupies 28 pages of the first and 30 pages of the second. The first Index is prefaced by the remark: ‘In this Index names not accurately recorded in the body of the work are corrected and a few observations made regarding certain other names’. It was like Cockayne to use an index in this unconventional way, taking the latest possible moment to bring his work up to date, the index being the last part of a book to be completed. The device was perhaps justifiable in this case when the manuscript had been in the publisher's hands since 1914, and only limited alterations were possible before the book finally appeared seven years later. But Cockayne adopted the same practice elsewhere and in any of his works it is well worth while to scan the index and lists of plant names for snippets of information.
Each of the two books begins with a carefully tabulated and very detailed table of Contents, occupying 8 pages in the first edition and 12 pages in the second. By making full use of this the reader may be led to many brief but illuminating accounts of the vegetation of specified localities. Throughout the books, however, there are many other references to place names, and we have found it useful to be able to locate these names by means of a card index, the contents of which are set out below for more general use.
Our list omits names of places outside the New Zealand Botanical Region, and also the names of Cockayne's Botanical Provinces, Districts and Sub-districts. The main discussions of the latter are easily found from the table of Contents but their names, either
With these exceptions our index aims to cover the place names in the two editions. Page references are to the second edition (also 1958) except in a few cases where an asterisk shows that the page quoted is in the first. Although the second edition is, as stated, ‘almost entirely rewritten, thoroughly revised and enlarged’ the same framework is used for both books and place names in general appear in the same sequence, being usually several pages earlier in the first edition. We list pages in the first edition therefore only where the second edition appears to contain no equivalent entry. The figures, which are all reproductions of photographs, are nearly all of specified localities and these are also indexed.
Several figures in the second edition merit some comment. Fig. 14: A discrepancy is obvious between the legend and the picture as printed. This disappears if the legend lies along the long edge of the page instead of along the bottom. Another reproduction of this same photograph illustrates the Cawthron Lecture for 1919 (as Fig. 2) and clearly shows islands in the sea beyond the slope covered with Hebe scrub.
Fig. 30: Though no locality is given, this photograph can be confidently placed as Kitchener Park, Feilding, and is so indexed. Fig. 64, 65: The legends of these two figures appear to have been reversed accidentally; compare the same pictures, as Figs. 53 and 54, in the first edition.
Fig. 77: In the second edition, but not in the first, this photograph is printed upside down.
Adams Id 49, figs. 98, 103 Admiralty Bay 8 Ahipara Bay 157 Ahuriri Valley 308 Akaroa 171 Alexander, Mt 291 Alexandra South 42 Amuri Bluff 82 Anglem, Mt 13, 249, 320, figs. 53, 54, 73 Anita Bay 87 Antipodes Is 14, 49, 50, 115, 400 Arawhata Riv. 394 Arrowsmith, Mt 16 Arthur, Mt. 256, 262, 310 Arthur's Pass 368, figs. 31, 87 Aspiring, Mt 5 Auckland 13, 14, 20, 44, 45, 51, 52, 55, 56, 58, 59, 76, 77, 81, 82, 92, 97, 107, 109, 110, 111, 116, 119, 125, 147, 156, 162, 164, 167, 189, 190, 195, 198, 221, 375, 376, 385, 386, 425, fig. 45 Auckland gumlands 51, 52, 139, 202, 376 Auckland Is Auckland Isthmus 13, 44, 157 Auckland Penin. 380, 381 Aupori 301 Awanui Riv. 24 Awarua 25, 72 Awatere 363, 365, 389, fig. 77 Baird Ra. fig. 88 Banks Penin. 9, 17, 20, 21, 46, 47, 63, 75, 97, 106, 109, 111, 112, 114, 150, 163, 165, 174, 183, 223, 224, 267, 269, 285, 375, 392, 393 Barrier Id, Great 13, 157, 381, 382, 391 Barrier Id, Little 157, 160, 381, 382, 425 Barrytown 113 Bay of Islands 8, 9, 157 Bay of Plenty 43, 44, 108 Bealey 394 Ben Lomond 21 Big Bay 90, 105, 394 Blenheim 58, 390 Blue Mts 263 Bluff 13, 62, 87, 95, 104, 105 Boiling Riv. 201 Bollons Id 50 Bounty Id 49, 50, 421 Bruce Bay 92 Brunner, Lake 200, fig. 40 Buller Riv. 111 Cameron Valley fig. 78 Campbell Is 10, 16, 49, 50, 354, 400, 413, 421 Canterbury 13, 20, 46, 47, 164, 211, 375 Canterbury, North 14, 423, 424 Canterbury Plain 46, 58, 62, 63, 90, 143, 164, 202, 207, 217, 230, 233, 375, 376, 392, 393 Canterbury, South 90, 423, 424 Cardrona, Mt 395 Carnley Harb. 49, fig. 99 Carrick Ra. 395 Cascade Riv. 166, 394 Cass 17, 18, 267, 306 Castle Hill 290, 424, fig. 99 Catlins Riv. 183 Centre Id 87, 106 Charleston 83 Chatham Is 4, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 23, 42, 48, 52, 136, 354, 359, 379, 381, 383, 400, 405, 407, 418, 420, 422, fig. 95. Cheviot 92 Christchurch 20, 55, 177, 394 Clarence 92 Clent Hills 327 Clifton 224 Clinton 4 Clinton Valley 14, 16, 286, 399, figs. 71, 78 Clutha 217, 310, 360, 363, 395, 396 Clyde 360 Codfish Id 48, 105 Coleridge, Lake 58 Collingwood 83, 360 Colville, Cape 44, 92 Cook, Mt 23, 45, 249, 262, 267, 278, 279, 285, 287, 301, 317 Cook Strait 45, 47, 53, 80, 90, 94, 95, 98, 99, 101, 102, 105, 108, 111, 112, 115, 167, 182, 183, 222, 386, 387, fig. 28 Coromandel Penin. 44, 45, 381, 382 Cromwell 360 Culverden 389 Curio Bay 102 Curtis Id 48 Cuvier Id 90 Dargaville fig. 41 Dawson Falls 269 Days Bay 145 Deep Creek 396 Denham Bay 28 Denniston 251, 302 Dick, Mt 368, fig. 86 Disappointment Id 49, 50 Dog Id 90, fig. 6 Doubtful Sound 105 Doubtless Bay 157 Dunedin 19, 23, 45, 55, 56, 58, 65, 183, 185, 263, 265, 267, 268, 358, 397 Dun, Mt 193, 300, 310 Dunstan Mts 319, 395, fig. 82 D'Urville Id 193 Dusky Sound 8, 42, 283, 391 Earnslaw, Mt 279 East Cape Id 81 East King Id 92 Egmont, Cape 42 Egmont, Mt 9, 13, 43, 44, 54, 99, 105, 151, 247, 250, 251, 256, 268, 269, 270, 277, 284, 291, 301, 311, 313, 317, 369, 386 Enderby Id 50 Eweburn 57 Ewing Id fig. 101 Farewell, Cape 390 Farewell Spit 27 Feilding fig. 30 Flagstaff Hill 281, fig. 56 Foveaux Strait 14, 21, 46, 47, 69, 87, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 105, 106, 109, 115, 175, 182, 397, 398, 399 Fox Glacier 45, 232, 394 Franz Josef Glacier 13, 16, 45, 170, 232, 234, 270, 394, figs. 32, 51, 52, 88 Frazer Peaks fig. 75 Freshwater Valley 47, 181 Galloway, Mt 50 Geraldine 163 Gisborne 55, 386 Glasgow, Mt 315 Glentui 148 Gore 19 Governors Bush 262 Great King Id 113, 380 Green Lake 255 Greenland, Mt 279, 280, fig. 74 Grey, Mt 263 Greymouth 24, 46, 114, 115, 224, 379, 403 Haast 20, 46 Hagley Park 20 Halfmoon Bay 399, 400 Hanmer 4, 22, 58, 217, 369, 376, 377, 389, fig. 1 Harper Rock 232 Harris, Lake 278 Hauhungatahi, Mt 266, 268, 270, fig. 69 Hautapu Riv. 387 Havelock 83 Hawea, Lake 308 Hawkes Bay 44, 51, 353, 386 Hector, Mt 16, figs. 83, 84 Hector, Mts 308 Hen and Chickens 381 Herekino Harb, 380 Hikurangi, Mt 14, 277, 313 Hokianga 9 Hokitika 55, 56, 58, 59, 115, 375, 394 Hokonui Hills 21 Hollyford Valley 20 Hooker Valley 219 Hope Saddle 303 Horopito 268 Horseshoe Hill 306 Hot Lakes 13 Huiarau Mts 261 Huirau Mts 261 Humbolt Mts 14 Hurunui Riv. 21, 389 Ida, Mt 296 Ida Valley 395 Invercargill 55, 56, 58, 83, 84, 375, 397 Island Bay 84 Jackson Bay 95 Jack's Pass 4, 296, 322 Judah, Mt 369 Kaikoura 46, 100, 389, 423 Kaikoura Mts, Inland 279, 285, 308 Kaikoura Mts., Seaward 14, 57, 163, 230, 389, 390 Kaimanawa Mts 279, 383 Kaitaia 181 Kaiwarau 395 Kapiti Id 16, 102, 105, 111, 115, 379, figs. 16, 28 Karioi, Mt 44, 383 Kaupokanui 387 Kawarau Gorge 358 Kawhia 45 Kermadec Is fig. 94 Kidnappers, Cape 385, 387 Kingston 42 Kitchener Park fig. 30 Kuripaponga 385 Kurow 395 Lammermoor Mts 234 Levin 176 Lincoln 56, 58, 59 Longwood Ra. 185, 263, 281 Lord Auckland Is 10, 16, 43, 49, 50, 52, 91, 115, 170, 233, 284, 312, 400, 417, 421, figs. 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103 Lottery Valley 147 Lumsden 46 Lyall Bay fig. 11 Macauley Id 48 Mackenzie Country 217, 299, 363, 395, 424 Macquarie Id 2, 7, 9, 13, 14, 20, 42, 43, 49, 50, 400, 412, 413, 421 Mahitahi Riv. 267 Malvern Hills 148 Mamaku Plateau 168, 183, 379 Manaia, Mt 92 Manakau Harb. 110 Manapouri, Lake 47, 181, 205 Manawatu 44 176, 387, 388 Mangere 49 Mangonui 16, 18, fig. 21 Maniototo Plain 57, 395, 396 Manuherikia Valley 395 Manukau 80, 110 Maria van Diemen, Cape 380 Marlborough 9, 11, 13, 47, 361 Marlborough Sds 47, 98, 105, 387, 388 Masked Id fig. 99 Mason Bay 47, 105, 399 Mason Valley 147 Mauku 15 Maunganui Bluff 45 Maungaraki Mts 44 Maungatua, Mt 263, 320 Mercury Bay 99 Meyer Id 254 Milford Sd 87 Mineral Belt 20, 21, 193, 276, 308, 310, 388, fig. 44 Miromiro, Mt 369 Mokau Riv. 222, 379 Moko Hinou 71 Mongonui (= Mangonui) fig. 19 Motueka 83, 390 Moumahake (= Moumahaki) 37 Moumahaki 56 Murray, Mt fig. 85 Napier 56, 58, 375 Neck, The 400 Nelson 9, 11, 13, 15, 47, 56, 58, 375, 388, 424 New Brighton 292 New Plymouth 55, 99, 386 New River Estuary 88 Ngauruhoe, Mt 9, 43, 291, figs. 62, 66 Nineteen Mile Beach 90 North Cape 11, 45, 80, 107, 191, 381, fig. 45 North-East Id 49 Nugget Point 101, 106, 108, figs. 14, 15 Oamaru 224 Ocean Beach 87 Ocean Id 30 Ohakune 135 Ohinemutu 201 Okarito 13, 84 Old Man Ra. 319, 320 Open Bay Is 47, 105, 106 Opepe 139 Ophir 360 Opotiki 45 Orari Gorge 163 Oreti Riv. 88, 95 Otago, Central 14, 16, 21, 22, 56, 57, 164, 211, 216, 229, 299, 356, 358, 360, 365, 376, 397, 424, fig. 104 Otago Fiords 47, 105 Otago Harb. 77, 105 Otago Lakes 188, 195 Otago, North 51, 185, 196, 274, 299, 305 Otago Penin. 80 Otira figs. 46, 47, 48 Otumakokori Stream 201 Oxford, Mt 163, 263 Palliser, Cape 44 Palmerston South 397 Paparoa Mts 113, 115 Paringa 90, 183, 256 Paterson Inlet 47, 48, fig. 18 Peel, Mt 24, 25, 163, 166, 170, 270, 271, 306, 308, fig. 25 Pelorus 66, 223, 353 Pepin Id 115 Pikikiruna Ra. 259 Pirongia, Mt 13, 44, 383 Pisa, Mt 320, 395 Pitt Id 49 Point Elizabeth 89 Poor Knights Is 23, 77, 78, 113, 381 Porirua Harb. 45 Porter's Pass 296 Port Hills 12, 217, 223 Port Jackson 9 Port Pegasus 47, 48, 203 Port Ross 10, 50 Port Underwood 96 Port William 400 Potts, Mt 327 Pouakai Ra. 256, 386 Poulter Riv. 256, 259, fig. 49 Poverty Bay 8, 44 Preservation Inlet 399 Price's Peak fig. 72 Princess Mts 16 Pukaki, Lake 200 Puketeraki Mts 14 Puketoi Hills 44 Queen Charlotte Sd 8, 75 Queenstown 56, 57, 229, 397, 403 Raetea, Mt 44 Rahu Saddle 272, 323 Raincliffe 163 Rakaia 256, 266, 268, 301, figs. 60, 78 Rakiahua Riv. fig. 35 Rangitaiki Riv. 384, 385 Rangitikei Riv. 387 Rangitoto Id 76, 77, 107, 108, fig. 20 Red Crater fig. 76 Red Hill 194 Reef Point 45 Riccarton Bush 18, 177 Richardson Mts 369 Rimutaka Mts 387 Rochfort, Mt 181, 262, 281, 302 Rock and Pillar Ra. 320 Rose Id 30 Ross 177 Rotoma, Lake 151, 171, 221 Rotomahana, Lake 196, 201, 384 Rotorua 56, 58, 201, 376, 384 Rough Peaks 278, 281, 291, 302 Routeburn 17, 280, 323, fig. 92 Ruahine Mts 11, 17, 43, 44, 184, 258, 277, 297, 312, 385, 387 Ruapehu, Mt 14, 43, 44, 179, 258, 268, 281, 291, 368, 383, 384, fig. 70 Rua Point 299 Ruapuke Id 48, fig. 5 Ruggedy Mts 47, 95 St, Arnaud Ra. 272 Saunders, Cape 42 Sealey Ra. 267, 279 Seddon 389 Shingly Ra. figs. 64, 65, 67 Silver Peaks 185, 263 Sinclair, Mt 269 Snares Is 14, 43, 49, 379, 400, fig. 96 Solander Is 399 Somers, Mt 148 South Cape 49 South-East Id 49 Southland 17, 62, 423 Southland Plain 46, 166, 172, 219, 397 Spenser Mts 16, 239, 315 Stephen Id 114, 115, fig. 22 Starborough 58 Stokes, Mt 14, 261 215 Stone Peak 369 Subantarctic Is 14, 15, 42, 50, 80, 354, 379, 411, 413, 421 Sugarloaf Is 99 Sunday Id 48, fig. 94 Table Hill 252, 279, fig. 90 Taieri 26 Taihape 387 Takaka 100 Takitimu Mts 263, 278, 290, 366, fig. 55 Tapanui 58, 263, 397 Taramakau Riv. 63, 163, 183, 256, 267, 269, 390, 394 Taranaki 20, 43, 45, 92, 375 Tararua Mts 16, 43, 222, 247, 249, 257, 261, 277, 284, 301, 312, 313, 387, figs. 63, 83, 84, 89 Tarawera 18, 43, 151, 171, 192, 196, 201, 384, 419 Tarndale, Mt figs. 50, 58 Tarras fig. 59 Tasman Glacier 45 Tasman Mts 183, 272 Tasman Sea 302, 390, 424 Taumarunui 165 Taupo 18, 44, 164, 384 Tauranga 379, 382, 384 Te Anau, Lake 47, 185, 186, fig. 43 Te Aroha, Mt 13, 160, 260 Te Kuiti 299 Te Mari 284 Te Tennyson, Lake 216 Te Whaiti fig. 23 Te Whanga 48, 49 Thames 13, 44, 116, 157, 159, 375, 382, 383 Three Kings Is 14, 42, 43, 74, 78, 97, 113, 379, 380 Timaru 67 Tirua Point 42 Titahi Bay 108 Titirarigi 13 Tokaanu 42 Tolaga Bay 8, 9, 42 Tongaporutu 111 Tongariro, Mt 16, 43, 266, 279, 283, 284, figs. 76, 80 Tongonge, Lake 196 Tooth Peaks 278, 291, fig. 57 Tophouse 272, 388, 389 Torlesse, Mt 263, 393 Trelissick Basin 310 Tuapeka 6 Tucker Cove 43 Turakirae, Cape 99 Turnagain, Cape 44 Tutamoe, Mt 44 Urenui 54 Urewera 4, 352 Victoria Ra. 272 Waiau 304 Waihi 59 Waihi, Lake 196 Waikanae fig. 8 Waikaremoana, Lake 44, 97 Waikato 44, 45, 51, 202, 204, 221 Waimakariri 14, 15, 224, 258, 259, 272, 275, 285, 310, fig. 39 Waimarino 16, 249, 257, 258, 259, 266, 268, fig. 66 Waimate 163 Waiotapu 57, 58 Waipa Riv. 44 Waipoua 16, 160, figs. 34, 35, 36, 37 Wairarapa 44, 387 Wairau 216, 388, 389, 390, fig. 68 Wairoa, Northern 44, 142 Waitakerei 107, 159, 160, 161, 381, 382, fig. 19 Waitaki Riv. 217, 392, 395 Waitati 358 Waitotara Riv. 101 Waitutu 182 Wakapuaka fig. 7 Wakatipu, Lake 14, 45, 186, 200, 395, 396, 398 Walter Peak 308 Wanaka, Lake 45, 359, 366, 396, fig. 105 Wangaehu Riv. 101 Wanganui 44, 51, 101, 147, 149, 222, 386, figs. 12, 13 Weka Pass 217 Wellington 13, 16, 20, 43, 44, 45, 55, 56, 58, 59, 375, fig. 11 Wellington City 37 West King Id 113, 380 Westland 21, 46, 54, 95, 110, 166, 232, 234, 269, 315, 394 Westland, North 14 Westland, South 90 Westport 113 Whakapapa Stream fig.46 Whangamoa Inlet 108 Whangarei 11, 375 Whangarei Heads 92 Whangaroa 9 White Id 17, 43, 108, 383, 384 White Terrace 201 Wilderness 220
****, 379**see Lord Auckland Is********, 389****, 254*******, 332*******************, 97****, 85, 91*****, 234*, 263, 360, 397******, fig. 1*, 151*, 176, 191****