Publicly accessible
URL: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/collections.html
copyright 2007, by Victoria University of Wellington
Second revised and augmented edition
All unambiguous end-of-line hyphens have been removed, and the trailing part of a word has been joined to the preceding line.
copyright: dr
First of all I am indebted to
My special thanks are due to
I am grateful too to Mr I. Calder, Principal of the Training College, for checking the manuscript to eliminate the ‘Double Dutch’, and to Mr B. Lockie who converted the English measurements into the metric system.
The Librarian of the Cook Islands Library, Mrs C. Temata, and her assistant, Mrs T. Urirau, have been most helpful.
Mr G. Cowan, Chief Surveyor, kindly granted permission to reproduce maps drawn in or for the Survey Department of the Cook Islands.
Last but not least, beyond words is the gratitude I feel towards
Shortly after the first edition came from the presses I received the article by dr
Special thank goes this time to my beloved wife who undertook the difficult task of retyping the manuscript with much patience and care.
From a village near the outskirts of Amsterdam my wife and I send our aroa to all in the Cook Islands.
Somewhat west of the centre in the triangle of the Pacific's “Many Islands”—Polynesia lie fifteen scattered islands and atolls which form politically but not geographically a group known as the Cook Islands. They are inhabited by Polynesians, “tell, robust, and well-developed specimens of mankind. “The nose is large and flashy, and the lips full. They are moderately brown-skinned with black straight or wavy hair. The eyes are full and dark brown (1).
The consolidation of these fifteen islands into one political unit came about as a by-product of the struggle of the European Powers for control in the vast Pacific Ocean, called “Mare Pacificum” — Peaceful Sea by the Spaniard
Great Britain proclaimed a protectorate over these islands in the late 1880s, and in 1901 permitted New Zealand to include them within its boundaries. “A small reward for half a century of pleading” (3). They were literally the crumbs that wear left after the choicer morsels had been swallowed up” (4). After sixty-four years of Colonial Rule the Cook Islands became a semi-autonomous mini-state with internal self-government in 1965 as one of the new-awarging nations of the South Pacific (5). Linked to New Zealand, the islands can be said to be part of the Southwest Pacific, but their culture and language are part of East Polynesia, with the exception of Pukapuka.
The political unity of these island, however, is not solely the result of the interference of Great Britain and New Zealand at the end of the 19th century. The process of unification started with the coming of the Christian missionaries in the third decennium of that century. They made Rarotonga the mission headquarters, first of what is now the Lower Group, and later also of the atolls in the North. Of special importance was the creation of a standard language through the use of the Rarotongan version of the Bible (6). At about the middle of the 19th century Rarotonga bacame also the commercial and “nesopolitan” centre of the Cooks. Thus the way was paved for bringing together the rather solitary and scattered islands, which now bear the name of the greatest of all Pacific explorers: Captain
It is interesting that links between the various islands existed in pre-historic times. Mangaia was probably settled from Rarotonga. The inhabitants of Rakahanga-Manihiki and Penrhyn claim a common descent from a Rarotongan warrior. Taruia and Ruatapo, famous Aitutakian ancestors visited Rarotonga. Taruia is also a Tongarevan ancestor. Ruatapu paid a visit to Atiu and Mauke. Tangiia of Rarotongan fame married two Maukean beauties, and visited Atiu. The Pukapukans knew about Rakahanga and Rarotonga, and probably about Tongareve. Nassau was a dependency of Pukapuka. Rakahanga and Manihiki were alternatively inhabited by one and the same people. Atiu, Mauke, and Mitiaro formed one unit, known as Nga-Pu-Toru. Takutea was in the possession of the Atiuans. Manuae was
The islands of the Cook Group had many names in the past, both Maori and Papaa (European). Some of these names, still used today, go back to the mythical past, others are traditional names and date from pre-historical times, while others are historical. A list of these names (see: no. 22) is quite impressive. But names are given by people. The giving of a name was a means by which man claimed possession or lordship (7). This attempt, therefore, to enlist as many of the ancient and present-day names as possible tries at the same time to list the names of those who have given or who might have given these names: the Polynesian and European discoverers of the Cook Islands.
A triangular near-atoll, reflecting the contours of the surrounding ocean floor at about 4,000m deep.
Total land area: 18.05 km2 Circumference of peripheral reefs: 45 km.Lagoon: 50 km2; maximum depth: 10.5 m; 75% is 4.5 m deep.
Three volcanic islets: Aitutaki, Moturakau, and Rapota. Aitutaki: 16.8 km2; max. altitude 118 m (Maungapu); 8 km N-S, 2.8 km E-W.
Twelve coral isles along the eastern reef, with a total area of 2.2 km2, varying in length from 150 to 2,250 m. The isle of Maina at the south-west corner is a sandcay. The Ootu peninsula is 3 km long.
Eastern reef: 600 to 1,000 m wide; Western reef: 800 to 1.700 m wide; Southern reef: 800 m wide.
Thickness of coral limestone over basalt: 13 to 20 m at the Ootu peninsula; 150 plus/ minus 30 m at Tavaerua iti.
Position: 18°51′45″S, 159°48′10″W.
Population: 1966: 2,579; 1971: 2,855 1975: 2,685
Aitutaki to Rarotonga: 259 km, to Manihiki: 946 km.
Aitutaki, settled as early as A.D. 900 (1), has three great ancestors: Ru Te Erui, and Ruatapu, who are alleged to be descendants of Atea and Papa (2), the primeval parents in many Polynesian myths.
According to a tradition, recorded by W. W. Gill, Te Erui was the first “Adam” of the island. He lived in utter darkness in the shades of Avaiki, the netherworld. His father was Te Tareva (The Expanse). Hearing about a land of light, Te Erui set out with his brother, Matareka (Smiling Face), to visit it. What they found was a half-sunken island. They struggled with the ocean, and the shallow waters vanished, leaving an island elevated far above the surrounding ocean. Te Erui called it Aitutaki, that is “God-led”: aitu — god, taki — led (3).
The more common tradition begins with Ru, who was a powerful, young man and a chief navigator of his home island, Tupuaki, far to the east and north. He sailed with his four wives, four brothers, and twenty “tamaine tapairu” in search of an uninhabited land. After many days and a severe storm, they found a new land, which is appropriately called Enua-O-Ru, Land of Ru (4).
Taruia, after leaving Rarotonga, reached Tongareva. His great-great-grandson, Urirau, returned to Aitutaki from Tongareva and settled there (5).
There is another account, which gives the first five canoes that arrived at Aitutaki. The first canoe, Te Uatoaua, with the Tongan chief,
When the great-grandson of Ruatapu, Maeva-kura, was ariki, the island was invaded by a strange tribe, named
Maro-una divided the island into districts. He married Ua-nuku-kaitai, by whom he had a son, Te Au-kura. The son of Te Au-kura, named Tapu-o-Rongo, took three wives, from whom branched the three ariki families of Aitutaki: Vaeruarangi, Tamatoa, and Te Uru-kura (7).
A Niue tradition states that one of their ancestors, Fao, left that island in old age, and settled in Aitutaki (8).
When Ru sighted the island, he called it Te Ararau-Enua-O-Ru-Ki-Te-Moana, that is: Ru's Search for land over the ocean (9), or Ru Looking for land over the ocean, as “ararau-enua” is said to mean: to search for land (10). One tradition tells that one of Ru's wives was named “Ararau-enua”, and she gave birth to Ru's first son, who was named: Ararau-enua-o-Ru-ki-te-moana (11). The proper name given to the island by Ru after landing was Utataki-Enua-O-Ru-Ki-Te-Moana. Two meanings are given: A Land Searched for and Found upon the Sea by Ru (12), or The Leading of a Cargo of people by Ru over the Ocean, as “uta” is a shortened form of “utauta”, that is a cargo of people, and “taki”, that is to lead (13).
A third name given by Ru was Ara'ura, which Gill translated as “Fragrant wreaths for dancing” (14).
The origin and meaning of the present-day name Aitutaki is disputed. One tradition says that a warrior, named Utataki-enua, gave the island the name of “Aitutaki” (17). Others state that Ru's “Utataki-enua” became “Ututaki”, and this was changed by the early missionaries from Raiates to Aitutaki(18). Kelly gives the name as Tu-Tataki-Enua, and adds that this was corrupted by Europeans to Aitutaki(19).
The European discoverer of the island is Wytootackee (20).
The Admiralty sent the frigate “Pandora” under the command of
Captain Goodenough of the “Cumberland”, who left Rarotonga on Aug. 12, 1814, reached Aitutaki two days later. He left the two kidnapped women of Rarotonga on the island, where they were found by
The turning-point in the history of the island and of the whole group now known as the Cook Islands was the arrival of
It was the beginning of the “Tuatau Marama”, i.e. the era of the light (of the Gospel), and the end of the “tuatau Etene”, i.e. the era of the heathen. The population at that time was 2.000 (25).
In 1822/23 Tupu ariki brought the Manuas people as captives to Aitutaki and took possession of that island (26). In 1839 the first European missionary,
Because of rumours that the French intended to annex the island, the ariki made a formal request for British protection (28). Captain Bourke of H.M.S “Hyacinth” hoisted the British Flag on Nov., 1888, and annexed the island to Great Britain (29). Later the island was included in the Cook Islands Federation for administrative convenience (30). In 1901 it was included in the boundaries of New Zealand (31). Population in 1902: 1,170 (32).
Wytootackee and Whytootackee (33), and Whylootackee (34).
Other spellings are: Itotake (35), Aitutake (36), Aitoutaki (37), Uaitutate (38), Aitutaike, Aitotake, Wytootach, Whytootacke, Vaitutake (39).
The Tahitians called it Tootate (40).
111:3
192:17, 139–141
169a:16
230; 234; 333; 228; 231; 20: 101–103, 110; 222:XIX; 125; 159: 3–7; 149f
86b:2
115:12
228a:23
228a:22–23
228a:21
169:59, 65
222:XIX
138:194
313:14
64:179
187:10note 1
66: 285
131:67
64:183
19:37
19:98
193:336
189:1309
28:90
505:27
62:118
A raised-reef island, described as quadrilateral in shape or roughly circular, reflecting the shape of the submerge volcano.
Area: 26.9 km2. Circumference: 20.12 km. Diameter: 7.2km N-S, 4.8 km E-W.
The centre is a flat-topped hill of volcanic rock: 5 km2; c. 70 m high; maximum altitude: 71.63 m. At the S-W edge of the plateau is a lake.
The central plateau is surrounded by a depression (swamp) 182 m wide; 6 to 9m above sea level.
The plateau and swamp are surrounded by a makatea: 1,000 wide; 3 to 6 m high at the sea side; 30 m at inland side. A coral reef, 90 m wide, surrounds the island, 45 to 90 m from the shore, except for about 800 m at Pari Aniu. Depth of ocean floor: 4,500 m.
Position: 19°58′45″S, 158°08′00″W. Population: 1966: 1,32 1971: 1,455, 1975: 1,429.
Atiu to Rarotonga: 214 km, to Mangaia: 214 km, to Aitutak 209 km.
The island of the “meek-faced”, or literally “woman-faced” Atiuans (1) must have witnessed the landfall of several canoes. Indications of it are the names of different tribes and different myths of origin.
The ancient name of the island was Enua-Manu (2). This name is usually translated as “Land of Birds” (3). The word “manu”, however, is a general name for any living thing moving on the earth or through the air (4). An informant told Enua-Manu would be “Land of Insects” (5).
Later the island was named Atiu in honour of one of the earliest ancestors, Atiu-mua, which means “Eldest-born” (6).
Gill recorded the following myth: “Atiu is said to be the name of the first man on the island. A pigeon sped hither from spirit-land and rested awhile in a grotto still known as “The Pigeon's Fountain”. Big drops of water kept falling from the stony roof, producing little addies in the transparent water beneath. As the pigeon was refreshing itself by sipping the cool liquid, it noticed a female shadow of great beauty in the fountain. Now the pigeon of Tangeroa was in reality one of the gods, and therefore readily embraced the lovely shadow, and then returned to its home in the nether-land. The child thus originated was named Atiu, that is “First-fruit”, or “Eldest-born”. Because of the divine origin of its ancestor the island was called “Land of Gods”, that is: Enua O Te Au Atua (7). This name was heard by (0-) Mai, the Tahitian who accompanied Cook on his third voyage. Cook wrote it down as Wenua No Eatua (8).
Another tradition calls Te Ariki-Mou-Taua the first man who came to Atiu from Avaiki. He arrived with his wife, Tepurui-Noo-ki-Tua, and his two daughters, Ina-Toko-Aikura and Inaina-Avai-Poa. Leaving his wife at the beach,
Enua-Manu (9).
A third tradition attributes the discovery of Atiu to Mariri and his younger brothers Atiu-mua and Atiu-muri. They came from Avaiki at about 1300. Their father was Tangaroa-Pu-Metua-Kore, or Tangaroa-Tumu-Metua-Kore, that is Tangaroa-the Source-without-a-father. This name implies the divine origin of these three ancestors (10).
A slightly different account calls Atiu-mua and Atiu-muri the sons of Mariri. At his arrival Mariri was hampered by so many “manu”, called “putiputi”, that he could not kill them all. He returned to Avaiki for help, and came back to Atiu with two “manu”, called Pena and Kura, which he let loose to destroy the “putiputi”. Mariri, then, went once more to Avaiki to find a wife. On return he landed first on Takutea (11). Either Mariri or Atiu-mua called the island Enua-Manu (12).
A fourth tradition says that Nuku-kere-i-manu was the first ariki of Atiu. He was the sixth in descent from Te Tumu, the great original first cause (god-ancestor) of the island. The inhabitants of the island in those days were birds, and so the island was called Enua-Manu. Inakoia-Kura, an aunt of Nuku-kere, became the wife of the god Tangaroa, and their first born son was Atiumua, whose name was given to the island. The meaning of this name is a “tiutiu”, signifying the flight of Tangaroa to heaven. When Nuku-kere died, Mariri became ariki. He was a descendant too of Tangaroa, and as he belonged to a senior branch, he took precedence over Atiu-mua (13).
The land of origin of Atiu's ancestors, Avaiki, might be Samoa, for there was a belief that they (or some?) had come from Manuka (Manu'a in Samoa) (14). An old chief, Mana, claimed to be from the Makea-Karika family, but of a younger branch. The law of primogeniture induced the first chief of Atiu to seek a home elsewhere (15). Whether that first chief came directly from Manu'a the original home of Karika, or from Rarotonga, the story does not tell. The principal god of the island must have been Tangaroa, as the Atiuans trace the descent of their ancestors to him. A very important focus of tribal activity, however, was the marae of Rongo, close to the Taunganui landing place (16). Gill told us that the natives of Atiu lived in dread of Tane-mei-tai, Tane-out-of-the-ocean (17).
Several famous Polynesian navigators called at Atiu. Tangiia-nui of Rarotonga built a marae, called Taputapuatea (18). Ruatapu of Aitutaki paid a visit too (19). Descendants of Rata are said to live on the island (20).
A later invasion brought Utataki-enua, a great-great-grandson of Te Erui (of Aitutaki?) to the island with his friend Tara. After a short stay they went to Mauke, and then returned to Atiu. Tatuaivi, the ruler at that time, fled to Rarotonga, and Utataki-enua killed the ancient people, the Ngaatua, and established his rule, called Te Au-o-Mokoero, as he lived at Mokoero (21). The Mokoero clan was also known as the Utavarau (22).
Another tribe, Ngati Tinorau, was destroyed by the Mokoero people, Ngati
Two warriors, Arai and Toanui, are said to have defeated the Ngati Uru (24). Akatauira or Te Ariki-tara-are of the Vakapora family of Rarotonga, stole a vessel and with his people sailed away to Enua-manu (Atiu), and remained there (c. 1400). He is the ancestor of the Ngamaru-ariki line. From him the tribe of Ngati Te Akatau-ira received its name (25).
A descendant of Ruatapu, Maro-una, called at Atiu in quest of warriors to make war on the Aitu people, who had invaded Aitutaki, and ousted his grand-father, Maevakura. Marouna obtained from Atiu a warrior, called Tara-Apai (26). Another account tells about a great warrior, Tara-Apai-Toa, who went to Mauke at about 1455, where he became an ancestor of the two Maukean ariki (27).
The tenth in descent from Utataki-enua was Tukuata, who married Papauite-Eiau, a descendant of Mariri. Their son,
Until late in the 18th century the island was divided into seven groups, six of which were ruled by a mataiapo, and the seventh by the chief of Mokoero (Ngati Arua). At about 1760 the chief of Mokoero was elevated to the ariki title of Ngamaru. The Ngatangi district objected and together with Te'enui and Mapumai created the ariki title of Rongo-ma-tane. Before the arrival of the Gospel a third ariki title had been created, that of Parua-nui, now associated with Mapumai (29).
The grandson of
On his third voyage Captain Cook sighted the island on March 31, 1777. The next day they were close enough to lower some boats to look for a place to anchor and to land. Several outrigger canoes came towards the ships, and one man was persuaded to come on board, soon followed by two others. Another man brought a bunch of bananas as a present from the head chief of the island. In return Cook sent him an axe and a piece of red cloth. Still later a double canoe with twelve men in it approached Cook's ship, and the natives came aboard. They wore pieces of fine matting around their waists. Their hair was tied on top of the head or flowing loose on the shoulders. The lobes of their ears were bored, not slit, and they were tattooed on the legs. They seemed to be cheerful and good natured to Cook. On April 2 a canoe brought a pig and some bananas, for which the people wanted a dog in return. That day Lieutenant Gore went ashore with Omai, Anderson and Burney. They were presented to three chiefs, Atirau, Taroa and Atauira. An umukai was prepared for the visitors, and it was not until just before sunset that they were allowed to return to their ships (31).
During the first half of 1823 the missionary of Borabora,
Captain Bourke of H.M.S “Hyacinth” hoisted the Union Jack on Oct. 30,1888 (34). Through the Atiuan ariki, Ngamaru, husband of Makea Takau of Rarotonga, Atiu, Mauke, Mitiaro, and Takutea became part of the Cook Islands Federation (35) until it was included within the boundaries of New Zealand in 1901. In 1902 the population of the island was 918 (36).
Cook spelt the name of Atiu as Wautieu (37), Anderson as Wateeoo (38), and Samwell as Watdu (39). Whatdew (40). Other spellings were Vatiu (41), Watiu (42), Atien (43), Watiou, L'Atoui, Katutia, Atui (44), Atiou (45). Enua-manu was spelt by Anderson as Fenooa Manoo (46). The following names in the Tahitian lists of islands (may) refer to Atiu: Temanno, Te-Manno (47), Oaiyu (48), and Oateeu (49).
230:64, 70
161:139
9b:87
20:60, 111
239:210
95:I294
242:70
195:39
242:69
234:215
362:144
242:70
242:75
375:217
242:71
242:68, 70
9b:81–88; 9c:831–843; 9d:1004–1009; 195:186–190; 198:259–264; 113:32–54
64:181
236:103–106
64:183
9b:87
9c:836
9d:1009
29:495
291:72
505:29
451:I 153
9c:842
32b:133
32b:136
25:18
A roughly circular or pear-shaped raised island. Area: 51.08 km2. Diameter: 9.6 km E-W, 7.2 km N-S. Radius: 4.05 km
Central volcanic plateau: diameter: 4.8 km, radius: 2.9 km; common level: 16 m; max. altitude: 169 m (Rangimotia); one lake.
Makatea: 1200 to 1600 m wide; 60 m above sea level; at the seaside a terrace of 182 m wide, 15 m above sea level; at the inland side a vertical cliff: 45 to 70 m in height. Depth of ocean floor: 4,750 m.
Position: 21°54′30″S, 157°58′ W. Population: 1966: 2,002, 1971: 2,074. 1975: 2,016.
Mangaia to Rarotonga: 203 km, to Atiu: 214 km.
The “Garden of the Cook Islands” (1) has a rather unique myth of origin. It was not discovered by some ancient voyager, but emerged from the under world of Avaiki with the first human settlers upon it.
The nether-world, Avaiki, was like the hollow of a vast coconut shell in upright position with its narrow end pointing downwards. Out of this end came a root, which consisted of three spirits (vaerua), who constituted the foundation, and insured the permanence and well-being of all the rest of the universe.
In the lowest depth of the interior of the coconut shell lived a fourth spirit, named Vari-ma-te-takere, that is The Mud and the Bottom. This female-being plucked off a piece of her right side, and it became another living being, half man and half fish, the father of gods and men. Its name was Avatea or Vatea, and it came to live in the uppermost part of the coconut, immediately under the opening into the upperworld.
Vatea embraced in his sleep a woman, named Papa (Rock), the daughter of Tima-te-kore (Nothing-more). Out of this union were born the first beings with a perfect human form: Tangaroa and Rongo (2).
Rongo, the principal god of the island, fathered three sons by his own daughter, Tavake. The eldest was Rangi. His younger brothers were Mokoiro and Akatauira. They were living on Auau, a land in the netherworld, until Rongo's sons brought this land up from Avaiki to the light of day. They became the first inhabitants, and the ancestors of the Ngariki (Nga Ariki) tribe, who claimed to be autochthonous (3).
Already during the period of Rangi many voyagers came to the island; some from the underworld, others from Rarotonga and Tahiti (4). Later canoes arrived from Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Atiu (5), Tonga (6), and even from New Zealand (7).
Buck gives the following explanation of Mangaia's myth of origin: When Tangiia came to Rarotonga from Tahiti (c. 1250), he brought with him a group of the rankless “Manaune” (8). As they had no chance of rising in social status.
The classical name of the island is A'Ua'u, meaning “akatautika”, that is “levelled off” (12). Gill explains it in this way: “As an individual consists of two parts, viz. body and spirit, so this land has a sort of essence, or spirit, the secret name of which is Akatautika, i.e. the “well-poised”. The body was called Auau; it is the earthly form, dragged up to light, while there remained behind in the obscurity of the netherworld the etherial form, or spirit, the “well-poised” (13). He translated Auau as “terraced” (14).
The present-day name Mangaia was given by Tamaeu, an Aitutakian, who came to the island some two years before Cook. He called the island Mangaianui-Neneva, that is: Mangaia-Monstrously-Great (15).
“Mangaia” means “temporal power”, or “peace” (16). The tribes descended from the various groups of settlers, retained their individuality, but they fought frequently for the “supremacy”, or “temporal power” over the whole island. As soon as one party gained the “mangaia”, peace was restored (17). Both Gill and Buck give lists of the 42 Temporal Lords and the battles through which they came into power (18).
Some other ancient names may or may not refer to Mangaia. One of these is Manitea (19). Another is Purutea, mentioned in the story of the “Akalava, which MacGregor identifies as Mangaia but with a questionmark (21).
An old tradition mentions the arrival of a “white” castaway during the second half of the 16th century (22).
The official discoverer of the island, however, is Captain Cook. After leaving New Zealand for Tahiti on his third voyage, the lookout of the “Discovery” sighted land on the morning of March 29, 1777. The following day the two ships sailed to the west side of the island. Some of the natives went to the edge of the reef, shouting and shaking their spears and clubs. Some wore a piece of bark cloth around the waist, others had a piece of cloth of different colours which hung from their shoulders. Two men came in their canoe to the “Resolution” and spoke to Omai. The name of one of them was Mourua. Both men had long slits in the lobes of their ears, and one put the knife which Cook gave him in the slit. Cook lowered two boats. On their way to the shore the two natives paddled their canoe towards Cook's boat and stepped into it. Finding no place to land the boats returned and Mourua came aboard the “Resolution”. One of the boats returned Mourua to the reef, and on the afternoon of Sunday, March 30, Cook left Mangaia and continued his course to the north (23). The name given to Cook by the natives was Tute (24).
On Sept. 22, 1789 the mutineers of the “Purutea. A native came aboard and Captain Christian gave him his jacket. One of the mutineers shot him dead. Edwin Gold reported in 1946 that he had acquired an old medical book, inscribed on the inside cover “March ye 10th 1786”, which the natives told him had come from a “Papaa-ship like a garden” in premission days. Gill was told that only
During his first unsuccessful search for Rarotonga in June 1823,
Mangaia was proclaimed a British protectorate on Oct. 28, 1888, when Captain Bourke of H.M.S. “Hyacinth” hoisted the Flag (32). The island became a part of the Cook Islands Federation, and in 1901 of New Zealand. In 1902 the population was 1,541 (33).
The spelling of Mangaia-nui-neneva in the Journals of Cook's third voyage is: Mangia-Nooe-Nai-Naiwa (34). Mangaia is spelt as Mangaeea or Mangia (35). Other spellings were Mangya (36), Mangeea (37), Mangea (38), Mangeer (39), Maniaa (40), Maonia (41), Mangee, Manaia (42).
Cook's spelling of the Atiuan pronunciation of Auau is: Owha-Va-Rouah (43) The spelling of this name in the Tahitian lists is: Oahooahoo, O-Ahoua-Hou, Oaauaha (44), Ahoua-Hou, Oahoo-Hoo (45), and Ahu-Ahu (46).
On Cook's third voyage Mangaia was first sighted by the lookout of the “Discovery”. Its master, Discoverys Island (47).
192:1–22: 246:9–15; 20:115–116; 193:87–110; 2:376–380; 96:I11–14: 95:I251–263
as in note 2
246:20–22, 36–37
246:39, 41
115:13
35:56
369:58
193:25
192:11
358:193
305:10, 22
9b:78–81; 9b:825–830; 9d:1003–1004; 195:174–185; 193:87–88; 198:243–258; 113:24–32
505:29
64:175
64:183
9c:827
9c:842
188:24, 31, 32, 33
291:73
189:I83
189:I123
505:30
32b:135
25:17, 18
43:65
A coral atoll with a triangular lagoon, 10.5 × 8.6 km, Land-area: 5.3 km2. Radius: 4.23 km.
Thickness of coral cap: 50 to 500 m.
Depth of ocean floor: 4,000 m.
Position: 10°25′20″W.
Population: 1966: 584, 1971: 452 1975: 408.
Manihiki to Equator: 1148 km, to Rarotonga: 1203 km, to Rakahanga: 44 km, to Penrhyn: 363 km, to Aitutaki: 946 km.
Manihiki, “one of the most beautiful specimens of an atoll with one of the most charming people” (1), and “the siren isle of the South Seas”(2), has no myths and legends of its own. As a piece broken off from Rakahanga, it was used by the Rakahangans as a foodsupply island, where the entire population moved to from time to time.
About one hundred and fifty years after Toa, at about 1500, two Rakahangan men voyaged to foreign lands (Tahiti?). They were Tangihoro (or Ngaru-vaaroto) and Ngaro-puruhi. The latter returned with two gods stolen from Utuone. He built a marae for the god Te Pua-renga at Tauhunu on Manihiki, and named it Te Pouhiteru, or Te Poututeru. A marae, named Variu, was built on Rakahanga for the worship of Te Uru-renga. These marae were thought to be the first constructed or the atolls (3). Another god, Ikaera, drifted ashore on Manihiki. His marae, Marae-okoroa, was at Tukao (4).
Some suggested that Manihiki was the island sighted by Quiros in 1606, and called Gente Hermosa (5).
The atoll was discovered by Captain Patrickson of the American ship “Good Hope” on Oct. 13, 1822. He called it Humphrey Island (6). Captain Joshua Coffin in the whale ship “Ganges” of Nantucket sighted the island in 1828, and named it Great Ganges Island. Other whalers and ships sighted or visited the island, and it is believed to be the island called: Liderous, Gland, Sarah Scott (7), and Pescado (7a).
Sometime before 1849 a canoe, sailing from Manihiki to Rakahanga, was blown out of its course. The five men and four women were picked up by a whaler and put ashore on Manuae. There the missionary ship “
The voyages between Rakahanga and Manihiki caused the loss of many lives. The missionaries, therefore, urged the people to give these voyages up and
From About 1860 the island became famous for its beautiful women. Tahitians, Peruvians, and strolling mariners bought, enticed, or kidnapped them. The young ladies had but one desire: to become the mistresses of Europeans (11). In 1869 the infamous “Bully Hayes” persuaded a number of Manihikians to go with him to Rakahanga. He brought them instead to Fiji to labour on the plantations (12).
In 1889 a faction opposed to the native missionary asked the French in Tahiti to annex their island, and a warship was sent for that purpose. The missionary, however, hoisted the British Flag, and the warship returned without annexing the island (13).
On Aug. 9, 1889 Commander A.C. Clarke of H.M.S “Espiégle” proclaimed a British protectorate (14). On the request of the Rarotongan Ariki Manihiki was included in New Zealand's boundaries in 1901 (15). The population in 1902 was 484 (16).
An informant said that the original name was Manuhiki. A canoe, named Rua Manu (Two Birds) was carried (hiki) ashore. Hence the name.
Sharp, who does not accept the Rarotongan origin of the Rakahanga-Manihikians, suggested that the original discoverers came from “Manihi” in the Tuamotu, as Manihiki could mean “Little Manihi” (17).
The name was sometimes spelt as Maniiki (18), Manahiki (19), and Monahiki (20). The Pukapukans spell it as Manuyiki (21).
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An atoll with two horse-shoe isles, sited on the eastern peak of a twin-peaked volcano. The volcano is an elongated structure with a diameter of 56 km E-W, 24 km N-S, at a depth of 3,000 m. The second peak is “Astronomer Bank”, 13 km west of manuae, and 300 m below sea level.
Total land-areas: 6 km2; Manuae: 2.1 km2; Te Au-o-Tu: 3.9 km2 Diameter of lagoon: 3.2 km max. altitude: 8.8 m
Position: 19°15′43″S, 158°57′ 43″W
Population: 1966: 15; 1971: 2
Manuae to Rarotonga: 229 km, to Aitutaki: 101 km, to Atiu: 111 km.
An Aitutakian tradition gives the honour of discovery to their ancestor Ruatapu. Leaving his home island Taputapuatea (probably Raiatea), Ruata-pu called at Rarotonga and Tonga Tapu. After re-visiting Rarotonga, he went to Mauke and Atiu. An atiuan chief, Renga, gave him two small birds, a kura and a moo, and some coconuts. On his way to Aitutaki, Ruatapu found the atoll and spent four days there. He planted the coconuts and liberated the birds. Many years later Ruatapu sent his second son and his son's wife to the atoll to fill it with children and to reign as an ariki. They landed on the smaller islet, but soon moved over to the larger one, which Te Uru-tupui called Te Au-O-Tupui, that is: the kingdom of Tupui. It is now known as Te Au-O-Tu. Two years later a canoe arrived with a solitary voyager, named Rongovei. Te Urutu-pui sent him to Utataki-enua-o-Ru to find himself a wife. Rongovei returned with two wives and was installed by Te Urutupui as an ariki over the islet (1).
Another tradition states that Ruatapu found the island already populated (2), and this is in agreement with the Atiuan tradition that the island was first settled by two Atiuan brothers, who went to Aitutaki for wives. Some Aitutakians went after them to take revenge for stealing some girls, but they remained instead in peace (3).
Still later Mangaians came to the island. This resulted in war. At the time of Captain Cook the two motu were bitter enemies (3).
The Aitutakians went often to the atoll to collect coconuts. Then it happened that the men did not return, and after investigations they learnt that the missing people had been killed and eaten. So they sent six armed canoes to capture and slay the entire population of the island. Some, however, were made captives and brought to Aitutaki as slaves (4).
Ruatapu found on the islets a large number of “tavake” (Boatswain birds), so he called the newly discovered land Manu-Enua, that is: Bird-Land (5). Another name of the island was Enua-Kura, translated as: The Land of the redparrot feathers (6). Gill relates the story that a year or two before Cook's visit to Mangaia (1777) a canoe sailed from Aitutaki to Manuae to collect
The third name of the island was Te Tapuae-Manu, that is: The Footprint of Birds (8).
On his third voyage the islanders told Cook that their home was called Te Rougge Mau Atooa; this might be Te Ruaeke Mau Atua, as part of an islet is called Ruaeke (9).
On Forster's version of the Tahitian map of islands the name is written as Moe-No-Tayo (10).
The present-day name is Manuae, translated as Home of Birds (11). It was originally the name of the smaller islet. It was also spelt as Manuwai (12), and Manauai (13).
On his second voyage Captain Cook arrived at Tahiti in August 1773, just over a year after leaving England. From Tahiti he sailed south-west, and on Sept. 23, 1773 he sighted the atoll. He passed it next day without seeing any people (14).
On his third voyage Cook reached the island on April 6, 1777. Soon six or seven double canoes came out. The natives had strong black hair which most of them wore hanging Ioosely from the shoulders, or tied in a bunch on the top of the head. Some, however, had it cut short. Their bodies were not tattooed, and they wore a piece of mat wrapped round the waist. Through Omai Cook learnt that the islanders had seen two great ships before, probably the “Resolution” and the Adventure in 1773. Lieutenant King was sent with two armed boats to look at the coast. The islanders threw some coconuts and invited the strangers to come ashore. The spears and clubs of the natives made King decide not to land. According to information gained through Omai, the island was at that time under the control of an ariki from Atiu (15).
The first name that Cook gave to the island was Sandwich, but he later crossed that name out to give it to the Hawaiian islands. He renamed the atoll Harvey Isle in honour of Captain Harvey, a Lord of the Admitalty. In other manuscripts it is written as Harveys Island, Hervey's Isles, and Hervey Island (16). The present-day English name is Hervey Island (17).
When Lamont of Penrhyn fame called at the island in 1852, he found a white man, named George, his two native wives and some children there. Some time before another white man and his wife had been living on the island (20).
In June 1889 Commander Nicolls of H.M.S. “Commorant” declared Hervey Island to be a British protectorate (21).
At the turn of the century the island was used as a kind of penal settlement for natives, who worked on a copra plantation (22). Makea Daniela was sentenced to one year's hard labour on Manuae in 1899 (23).
The islats of Manuae and Te Au-o-Tu were leased to the Cook Islands Trading Coy Ltd for 25 years on June 7, 1898. This lease was confirmed on Sept. 16, 1903. The Lessor was the Aitutaki Government.
This lease was transferred to
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A raised-reef island, described as roughly circular, or oval in ahape, reflecting the outline of the submerged volcano.
Area: 18.4 km2. Diameter: 6.4 km N-S, 4 km E-W. Radius: 2.51 km.
The centre is a low-lying and flattish basalt plateau: 3.2 × 2 km; 30 m above sea level. Surrounding makatea: up to 1.6 km wide; 20 m above sea level. Between makatea and plateau swamp-land in the east, west, and north. A reef, pierced by six passages encircles the island. Depth of ocean floor: 4,500 m.
Position: 20°08′30″S, 157°21′20″W. Population: 1966: 671, 1971: 763. 1975: 806.
Mauke to Rarotonga: 277 km, to Atiu: 92 km, to Mitiaro: 59 km.
The most easterly of the Cook Islands is named after a settler from Avaiki called Uke or Uki. The “Land of Uke” was called Mauke (Ma'uke) or Mauki(1). (In a genealogical account Uke is called Uke-umu-o-te-vaarua-kino, that is: Uke-oven-of-the-evil-pit. “He came to this world, and became a man,” the account says, inferring that his ancestors were gods. His primeval parents were Atea and Papa. Uke married Puai-angauta, and their daughter, Tara-matie-toro, was taken as wife by Tura, a son or grandson of Atiu-mua from Atiu. “It was these two who spread the population of Mauke and Atiu.” The genealogy gives then 25 generations down to Pare-pora, who lived at the time of the
On a visit to Mauke Tangiia of Rarotonga married two sisters, Moe-tuma and Pua-tara, who according to one accoun were daughters of Uke (3).
Ruatapu of Aitutaki paid a visit to Mauke too. During his stay in Tonga, Ruatapu sent his son by a Tongan woman to his son in Rarotonga. The latter, however, sent his younger brother, Moenau, to the Nga-Pu-Toru. Moenau settled on Mauke, and married Te Rau-maro-kura. Their son, Te Au-kura, became ariki of Mauke-tau. Before Ruatapu himself arrived at Mauke, his son was killed by the Maukeans at Avaavaroa. Recognising his grandson, Ruatapu took revenge by killing great numbers of the Mauke people (4).
For some time prior to the arrival of the Gospel the Maukeans had been under the domination of Atiu. Raiding parties from Atiu went over from time to time for food and women (5).
Once the wife of a Maukean chief was abducted by a chief from Atiu, named Aka-ina. When the husband killed Akaina. Rongomatane of Atiu crossed over to Mauki in a fleet of eighty war canoes. Instead of defending themselves, as the Miti-aro people had done, the Maukeans fled to their caves, but many were hauled out, clubbed to death, and baked in ovens. Rongomatane placed one of his men, Tarero, in charge of the island.
The remnant of the fugitives rebuilt their huts, and then turned under the leadership of Maiti against the small party of Atiuans, killing some of them, including the father of Tararo. One of the Atiuans, Kairae, succeeded in launching a canoe, and via Mitiaro reached Atiu. Once again Rongomatans went to Mauke, and Maiti and his warriors were cooked and eaten, but women and children were spared. Tararo was again left in charge (6).
The classical names of the island are Te Rae-O-Te-Pa'u, meaning: The Lip of the Drum; it was also the original name of Rurutu (7), and Akatoka- Manava (8). Gill gives as the meaning of “akatoka”: Stony. “Manava” means “heart” (seat of emotions). Thus he translates Akatoka-Manava as “Stony Heart” It was according to him the secret name of the island's etherial form in the netherworld (9). Against this translation is the fact that in Maori the adjective comes after the noun.
An informant gave the following explanation: When Uke came ashore, he had here his first good rest since he started his voyage. When he awoke, he called the place: Akatoka-Manava, that is: My Heart Rested. Hence other translations: The Place of Rest (10), A Heart in Peace, or A Heart in Love (11).
In many legends an island, named Maketu, is mentioned. This was said to be Ma-uke (12). More recently it is thought to be the island of Meetia (13).
Mauke was discovered by
The next ship was the “Blonde”, commanded by Captain Lord Byron, who had conveyed the bodies of the Hawaiian King and Queen, who died in England, to their own country. The “Blonde” arrived at Mauke on Aug. 8, 1825. Lord Byron named it Parry Island in honour of Mauti (18). Other spellings were: Manke (19), Maute (20), Mauké (21), Maouti, and Mante (21a).
The Gospel did not end the Atiuan domination. In the 1840s an armed expedition of Atiuans went to Mauke, but returned home without battle, when they heard that a resident European trader had supplied the Maukeans with muskets (22). In 1895 Tararo ariki was deprived of his rank by the Atiuan ariki, Ngamaru, and during the Protectorate period land leases had to be approved by the Atiu-an ariki (23). Tararo, who died in 1909, was a descendant of Rata (24) and of Ruatapu (25).
On Nov. 1, 1888 Captain Bourke of H.M.S. “Hyacinth” hoisted the British Flag (26), and Mauke became a member of the Cook Islands Federation until it was annexed to New Zealand in 1901. The population at that time was 370 (27).
The sea-shore village of Kimiangatau was founded in Sept./Oct. 1904 as a result of the animosity between those who remainad faithful to the L.M.S, and those who had recently accepted the Roman Catholic Faith (28).
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A roughly circular or quadrilateral low raised-reef island. Area: 22.25 km2.
Diameter: 6.4 × 4.8 km. Radius: 2.76 km. Depth of ocean floor: 4,500 m.
The central volcanic core is formed by four “islands”, 3 to 12 m high, in an area of swamp-land; radius: 1.3 km. There are two lakes.
The coastal makatea belt: 6 to 9 m high; 400 m wide in the east, and 800 m wide in the N.W and S.W; at the seaside is a cliff face of 3 m high.
Position: 19°51′ S, 157°43′W. Population: 1966: 293, 1971: 331 1975: 352.
Mitiaro to Rarotonga: 263 km, to Mauke: 59 km, to Atiu: 50 km.
The gods drew this island up from the depth of the ocean, but it was bare rock, without any soil. One of the gods, Tane, decided to beautify the island. Suddenly two iron-wood trees sprang out of the rock near the sea: one on the east coast, facing Mauke, the other on the west coast, facing Atiu. Both trees touched the skies. No wonder, for they were embodiments of Tane-tarava, Tane the all-sufficient. The trees bowed down until their tops rested on the neighbouring islands. Fairies collected soil in coconut-leaf baskets, which they put in the branches. The trees raised themselves and the soil in the baskets was poured out over the island. This process was repeated many times until the island was fit for human habitation. One can still see the glens from which the fairies took the soil on Atiu and Mauke (1).
The island was settled from Atiu (2). An ancestor was Kutikuti-rau-matangi, and an ancestress Te Rongo-te-maeva (3).
The ancient name of the island is Nuku-Roa, translated by Gill as “Vast Host” (4), not “Vast Boat” (5). An old meaning of “Nuku”, however, was “Land” (6), and a better translation seems to be “Large Land”. This meaning is in any case substantiated by the facts. Aerial photographs taken in 1959 showed that Mitiaro is twice as big as previously thought, and 1,000 acres bigger than Mauke. It is the fourth island qua size of the whole group (7). The present-day name Mitiaro is translated by Gill as “Face of the Ocean” (8). “Aro” can mean “face”. “Miti” for “ocean” is unknown today, although. Savage gives it as a second meaning; the first being “salt” (9). But “miti” is the Tahitian word for “ocean” (10).
Another explanation is that Mitiaro is a shortened form of Motia-Aro (11), also spelt as Motea-Aro (12). “Motia” means: settlement, village, region (13). Mitiaro is also said to mean: L'Île en lutte contre la mer (14). The Isle in combat with the sea.
The late Tangata Nekeare explained the name of his home island as follows: The original name was Miti-Vai-Aro. “Aro” is the immature coconut; “vai aro” is the fluid of the “aro”, and “miti” is “to lick”. This name is said to refer to a battle with the Atiuans, when the blood of the victims was licked up like “vai aro”.
Mittiero, Mitièro, Mattiaro (15), and Metiaro(16).
Shortly before the arrivel of the Gospel, Rongomatane ariki of Atiu attacked the island. The brave warriors of Mitiaro held their stronghold Te Pari against the invaders, until it was captured by stratagem (17).
The island was discovered by
During the 1840s the island was attacked at least twice by the Atiuans (21). Captain Bourke of H.M.S. “Hyacinth” hoisted the Union Jack on Oct. 31, 1888 (22). The island was included in the Cook Islands Federation until its annexation to New Zealand in 1901. In 1902 the population was 165 (23).
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A flat oval sand-cay on a coral reef foundation with a few ridges and dunes, rising to 9 m, and surrounded by a narrow reef flat: 90 to 130 m wide on the east, west, and south sides, but narrower on the north side.
Area: 1.2 km2 (estimate) Diameter: 1.6 × 0.8 km Position: 11°33′20″S 165°25′W
Population: 1966: 167, 1971: 168. Nassau to Pukapuka: 88 km, to Rarotonga: 1246 km 1975: 124.
This small island belonged to the Pukapukans from the very beginning, for Mataliki himself put a Pukapukan in charge of it. The name of the caretaker was Ngalewu, hence the island was named Te Nuku-O-Ngalewu, that is: The Land of Ngalewu (1).
After contacts between the two islands came to an end, because a conflict between the gods made sea travel dangerous, the island became known as Te Motu-Ngaongao, that is: Deserted Island (2). This name was also spelt as Te Motu-Nono (3). It is said that this name was given by Manihikians who drifted to the island and found it uninhabited.
The first discoverer of the island might be Adele Island (4). Captain George Rule of the ship “Fanny” discovered the island either on June 7, 1823 (5) or in 1827 (6), and named it Lydra Island. A London whale ship “Ranger” sighted the island on a date unknown, but before 1835. Hence the name Ranger Island. Captain Elihu Coffin of the American whaler “May Mitchell” of Nantucket called it Mitchell Island in 1834. Captain John D. Sampson of the American whaler “Nassau” discovered the island in March 1835, and named it Nassau, which is still its present-day name. The whale ship “Audley Clark” of Newport, Rhode Island, sighted the island on Dec. 28, 1836, and its captain, New-Port Island (7).
At about 1860 a party of Manihikians, six men, and one woman, drifted to the island, and built a hut and a chapel, the traces of which were found by W.W. Gill, when he landed in 1862. He planted several coconut palms (8). The missionary ship “
In 1876 an American occupied the island and planted 14,000 coconuts, bananas and other plants, and employed natives from Pukapuka (10).
A sketch survey of the island was made in 1880 by a British ship (12).
The Samoa Shipping and Trading Company leased the island at about 1916, and worked it as a copra plantation till 1926.
In 1933 the island was occupied by a European planter and labourers form Pukapuka and the Ellice Islands (16). Some time before 1943 it was re-occupied by a European, Captain Williams, with about thirty natives from the Tokelaus (17).
The Cook Islands Administration bought the island in 1945 for £2,000. The Island Councillors and Chiefs of Pukapuka bought it from the Administration for the same amount, and on June 2, 1951 the first Pukapukan party went to Nassau. It has since been occupied by transient groups from that island for the production of copra (18).
A harp-shaped atoll with 35 islets and a continuous ring of reef surrounding a shallow lagoon, 9.6 × 7 km. Land-area: 2 km2 (estimate).
Position: 18°04′S, 163°10′W.
Population: 1966: 86, 1971: 72. 1975: 80.
Palmerston to Equator: 2003 km, to Rarotonga: 500km, to Aitutaki: 366 km, to Suwarrow: 533 km, to Pukapuka: 842km.
This atoll has no Polynesian tradition, although it must have been inhabited at least temporarily in pre-European days, for 12 ancient graves and a number of stone adzes have been found (1). An ancient name of the island is said to be Avarau, which means: two Hundred Harbours (2).
In a list of islands visited by Polynesian navigators Smith placed the name Palmerston preceded by a questionmark to an island named Uru-Pukapuka-Nui (3). On Forster's version of a Tahitian list of island names the island is identified as O-Rimatema (4).
Captain Cook discovered the island during his second voyage on June 16, 1774. The next day he came close to the atoll and counted 6 islets, but he did not see any people. No place to anchor was found (5).
Cook returned to the island on his third voyage. It was sighted on Sunday, April 13, 1777, and next day four boats were sent ashore to get food for the cattle. Cook himself went ashore too. He found there a great number of frigate birds (kota'a), tropic birds (tavake), and two kinds of boobies (ngoio). He also saw a large number of red crabs (tupa), and some small brown rats. Just before sunset on Thursday, April 17, everybody was back on board, and the ships set sail to the westward (6).
On his first passing the island Cook called it Palmerston in honour of Lord Palmerston, First Lord of the Admiralty (7). In the Journals of the third voyage the name is written as: Palmerstone Islands (8), Palmerstons Island (9), and Palmerston's Islands (10). The Maori pronunciation of the name is Pamati.
W.W. Hill thought that the mutineers of the “
The island became the scene of the first commercial enterprise in the Cook Islands, when on July 15, 1811,
At about 1850 the “Merchant of Tahiti” called at the island, and found four white men, headed by
Palmerston was annexed to Great Britain by Commander C.L. Kingsmill on May 23, 1891. The population in 1902 was 115 (21). Sometime after the annexation the British Government granted
The largest atoll in the Cook Islands on the highest volcano: 4,876 m.
Lagoon: 20.9 × 11.3 km2, circumference: 64 km. Land-area: 9.8 km2.
Position: 8°59′45″S, 157°58′50″W.
Population: 1966: 684, 1971: 756. 1975: 592
Penrhyn to Equator: 994 km, to Rarotonga: 1364 km, to Manihiki: 363 km, to Aitutaki: 1111 km.
The most northern atoll of the Cooks was fished up by Vatea, the eldest son of the great mother in Avaiki. He went out fishing, using a great fish-hook baited with a star. When he caught nothing, he tore off a piece of flesh from his thigh, and used it as bait. He, then, pulled up the island of Tongareva, after which he hung up his fish-hook in the sky. From the time of creation the atoll had been inhabited by the descendants of the mythical Atea (Space) and Hakahotu (Coral Upgrowth) (1). Another tradition says that their ancestors came from Hawaiki-tautau, that is New Zealand, before Tangiia and Karika came to Rarotonga (2).
Other legends tell about visitors from Savai'i and Kupolu. A certain Uenga, who came from Savai'i, called at Tongareva, before settling in Tahiti. In Tahiti his name was changed to Ruatea. His son was Tangiia-ariki, whose son was Kaukura, who in turn fathered a child, named Tangiia-nui, a contemporary of Tangiia-nui of Rarotonga (3). Another Kau-kura, an ancestor of Tangiia-nui of Rarotonga, had his home at Tongareva. His marae was Tuarea (4).
Te Aru-tanga-rangi, the son of Te Aru-tanga-nuku, sailed from Kuporu to Savaii and after some time returned to Kuporu. There his son Rira was born. The son of Rira was Papa-runga, who went to Tongareva, where his son, Papa-raro, was born. Papa-raro went to Iva (Marquesas). His son Tupa went to Tahiti. He too is an ancestor of Tangiia-nui of Rarotonga (5).
A voyaging ancestor was Taruia, the Aitutakian ariki deposed by Ruatapu. One account made him a permanent settler, another made him leave, after his son, Titia, had settled on the islet of Tokerau. Shortly, after Taruia, another voyager arrived. It was Mahuta, who was originally from Rakahanga, but who came to the island via Tahiti. At that time Takatu was a descendant of the original inhabitants (6).
The original name of the island was Tongareva, translated as: Floating Tonga (7), Tonga Floating in Space (8), Tonga-in-the-skies (9), and Away from the South (10). Lamont never mentioned this name (11).
Gill gives as an old name Fararanga, said to mean: Land (12), and given by Mahuta, when he first sighted the atoll. Buck thinks that it is a mistake, as the dialect has no ‘f’ sound. One of the genealogies mentions the word “Raroranga”, and this might be Gill's Fararanga (13).
Lamont, who spent almost one year on the atoll before the introduction of Christianity, called the island Te Pitaka, that is: The Ring, or The Circle. It was not, however, a name used by the natives: “Their idea of the whole group (of islets) was doubtless too great for them to dream of calling the islands collectively by one name” (14).
The present-day native name is Mangarongaro. Originally it was the name of one of the divisions of the large islet to the southwest (15). According to the Aitutakian tradition Taruia settled in this part, and its name, Mengarongaro, was used by the Aitutakians for the whole island (16). There is no translation of this name, but “mangaro” is a particular kind of coconut (17). In another Aitutakian tradition the island is called Rapukatea in the Maori text, and Puka-Tea in the English translation. It is also written as Raupukatea. It is said to be the name of an islet (18).
Tongareva was often spelt as Tongarewa. It was called Tongaliliva, or Tongaleleva in Pukapukan legends (19). Lamont spelt Mangarongaro as Mangerongaro (20).
Tongareva was discovered by Captain Penrhyn, presumably after the ship (21). Sometimes the name of the Captain is given as “Sever” (22) “Severn” (23), or “Stavers” (24).
The next Papaa visitor was Lieutenant Otto von Kotzebue in the Russian ship “Rurick”, or “Rurik” on May 1, 1816 (25), not 1815 (26).
In 1839 the Government of the United States sent a scientific expedition to the Pacific under the command of
On Jan. 6, 1853 the brig “Chatam” was wrecked on the reef and some of the crew lived on the island for almost one year. One of them was the trader,
Another European name was: Bennett Island (32a)
Christianity was introduced in March 1854, when three native teachers came ashore (32).
In 1862/63 the island was almost depopulated by Peruvian slavers, who left only 88 people of a population of perhaps 500 (33). The story goes that the four native teachers of the Hervey Group sold their congregation to the Spaniards for five dollars a head. Three of them took passage to Callao as interpreters
Island of the Four Evangelists (34).
The island was annexed by Captain Sir William Wiseman of H.M.S. “Caroline” on March 22, 1888 as possible landing-station for the Pacific Cable (35). In 1901 the island was included within the boundaries of New Zealand. The population in 1902 was 445 (36).
The first plane arrived in July 1942. It was a
The U.S. code name for Penrhyn during the Second World War was Ostler. The camp near the airfield was “Camp Durant”, or “Point Durant Camp”.
263:265 note 173
371:141
311:54
as in note 1
290:4
193:11
Informant
193:11
290:4
291:153
299:377
291:125
127:144
19:74
290:6
290:7
505:37
291:161
391:200
505:38
391:200
66:286–287;
64:183
A three lobbed atoll, 10.5 × 10.5 km, with three islets and a sandbank.
Land-area: 1.2 km2 (estimate). Maximum elevation: 12 m.
Position: 10°53′S, 165°49′W.
population: 1966: 684, 1971: 756. 1975: 784.
Pukapuka to Equator: 1207 km, to Rarotonga: 1324 km, to Nassau: 88 km, to Manihiki: 529 km.
Tamayei, a god from Tonga, searched the ocean until he saw a rock rising from the bottom of the sea. When he returned for the fourth time, the island had come to the surface. Suddenly a man from inside the rock burst through. His name was Mataliki. Another god, Vaelua, sent Mataliki to Tongaleleva (Tongareva or just Tonga?) to seek a wife. He found a girl, named Vaopupu, and he brought her to Te Ulu-o-Te-Watu, that is: The Head of the Rock (Te Katu-o-te-toka in Rarotongan), which had grown Mataliki (1). Another account written by one of the Rarotongan native teachers to Pukapuka simply stated that Matariki was a god, the son of Tamaei, who came from Tonga. Matariki's mother was a “vatu” that is a stone. The creation of heaven and earth is attributed to Matariki, who founded the villages of Muriutu, Matanga, Angari-pure, Akovika, Amaunga, and Aronga. It was in these places that men grew and increased to great numbers, for in those days men did not die (2).
Probably more than one voyager reached the island, for a man, called Uyo, is also said to be the ancestor of the people. Pukapuka was a rock in the ocean. A god, named Tamaye watched the rock, and thought it of no use. The rock, however, burst open and a man appeared. As there was hardly standing room, the man, Uyo, made the island of Pukapuka. His wife, Te Vao-pupu, came from To-nga. Their son was named Tu-muri-vaka, and their daughter, Te Mata-kiate (3). In very ancient times two warriors came from Tonga, one was named Tokai-pore, the other Taupe-roa. They settled the people in three districts: Avarua, or Kotiporo, Te Awea, or Pana-uri, and Takanumi, or Ure-kava (4).
The island knew happiness and peace during the reign of Akau-te-vaka ariki, when there were no wars. This lasted until the days of Akamora, who was detested by his people, for he was beloved by one of his granddaughters, named Akovika. When she had reached womanhood, Akamora delegated to her the chieftainship. The girl herself was in doubt, and went to her father, Kui, to ask for advice. Kui replied: “We (maua) will take it.” This made the people angry, and they decided to kill Kui. That is how war started in Pukapuka (5).
Pukapuka was settled at about A.D. 1300. About 250 years later the island was struck by a seismic wave, due to the wickedness of the daughter of the king. Her name was Anuna. Only two women and fifteen men survived, and they, in a communal effort, repopulated the island (6).
The most ancient tribe, descended from an ancestress, called Te Raio, was Te Ua-ruru. Other tribes were Te Mango, Te Uira, and Te Kati (7).
Mataliki, using his right as discoverer, named the island Te Watu-A-Ma-Taliki, that is: The Rock of Mataliki (8). Another ancient name was Nu-Kuloa (Nukuroa in Rarotongan), that is: Large Land (9).
The present-day name of Pukapuka, also written as Bukabuka (10), was originally the name of the main island (11), which is now called “Wale”, that is: House, Pukapuka has no meaning (12), but Robert and Johnny Frisbie translated it respectively as: Little Hills and Fat Land (13).
The island name O Poopooa, or O-Popooa on Forster's map may refer to Pukapuka (14).
According to Pukapukan tradition the first white man's ship was sighted during the time of Alatakupu, the fourth chief after the seismic wave (15). That must have been Mendana and Quiros.
A quarter of a century after his first voyage across the Pacific (1567/68) and almost three quarters of a century after Magellan (1521), San Bernardo. Saint Barnard, Abbot of Clairvaux, was the guiding light of the Church in the 12th century. He died in 1153, and Aug. 20 is his feastday in the Roman Catholic calendar. Both Beaglehole and Maude accept that San Bernardo is Pukapuka (16). The fact that Quiros mentioned four islets is not a too serious objection. Hurricanes and tidal waves could have denuded the fourth island of vegetation, and reduced it to the size of the present-day sand-cay, Toka. Buck mentions San Bernardo without attempting to locate it, and
A fleet of British war vessels crossed the Pacific in 1742 under the command of Island Of Danger, because the high surf made it too dangerous to land (19). Pukapuka is still known as Danger Island. The Atoll was named Îles De La Loutre by Captain Peron of “La Loutre” on April 3, 1796. Captain
Native tradition mentions another white man's ship in 1850 (20). The first native teachers were landed in Dec. 1857 (21). Gill visited the island in 1862 (22), and in 1865 the missionary ship “
Early in 1863 the island was twice visited by Peruvian slavers, who took away about 140 men and women (24).
The U.S.S. “Tuscarora under the command of J.N. Miller examined the atoll in 1876. Observations were made in 1880 by H.M.S. Alert. The Hawaiian bark “R.W. Wood” under Captain English made a cruise from Sept. 6, 1869 to Dec. 19 in
295:120, 122–123
306:173, 175
306:173, 175
295:120–121, 123
306: 174, 176
306:173, 175
305:5
299:17
303:37
32b:135
299:394
113:10
19:23
505:40
299:399
192:60
17:114
66:287
68:558
64:183
A rectangular
Position: 10°02′30″S, 161°05′30″W.
Populations 1966: 323, 1971: 339. 1975: 365.
Rakahanga to Equator: 1111 km, to Rarotonga: 1248 km, to Manihiki: 44 km.
Rakahanga and its sister-island Manihiki ware discovered by Huku (or Hiuku, Hiku, Iku). Names, said to be ancient names of both islands, are part of the legend of discovery: Whakahotu, Tapua'Ua, Te Huru-Awatea, and Hotu-Rangaranga(1).
Huku came from Rarotonga, although this is questioned by Sharp (2). He was a son or grandson of Hiro (Ira, Whiro), a contemporary of Tangiia, the great Rarotongan ancestor (3). On a fishing expedition Huku came to a part of the ocean known as Te Tukuanga I Whakahotu, that is: The Fishing ground of (owned by) Whakahotu. Whakahotu does not appear elsewhere in the tradition, but Hakahotu in Tongareva, Fa'ahotu in Tahiti, and Hd'ohoku in Hawaii, is the primary female parent of coral atolls; the word means: to grow up like a coral growth (4).
At Te Tukuanga i Whakahotu Huku noticed an upgrowth of rock and land (tapua whenua) still beneath the surface of the ocean. He renamed his canoe Tapua, that is: Upgrowth, or Tapua'ua, that is: An Upgrowth only (5), and returned to Rarotonga.
This more or less historical narrative is now interpolated by the myth of Maui-mua fishing up this upgrowth of coral. The three Maui brothers, Maui-mua, Maui-roto, and Maui-potiki, or Maui-muri, arrived at that particular spot in a canoe. First Maui-mua let down his fish-hook, and he caught a shark (mango). Then Maui-roto caught an “urua”. Now it was Maui-muri's turn. Before letting down his hook, Maui-muri went down to visit the woman, who dwelt down below, Hina-i-te-papa (Hina of the rock). She fastened Maui-muri's hook on to the coral. When he hauled up his line, the sea was agitated, and finally land came to the surface. Maui-muri sprang on to the rocks, while his two brothers drifted ashore in their canoe. The canoe split up and both were drowned (6). In the Manihikian version, Maui-muri named the island Manahiki (7). Some versions attribute the breaking up of the land into two parts, called Rakahanga and Manihiki, to Maui (8), but this is denied by Buck (9).
In a dream Huku saw that his upgrowth had reached the surface, and in that dream the name Rakahanga came to him (10). He sailed back and met Maui on the new land. Huku attacked him to expell the intruder, and in the struggle that followed a portion of the land broke off and it floated away to become Manihiki (11).
Finding a drift coconut, Huku planted it at a spot which he named Te Maru-o-Araiawa. To the nut, or to the plant that was to grow from it, he gave the name of Te Huru-Awatea (12). Then he returned to Rarotonga.
On a third (or fourth) voyage in a canoe, named Hotu-Rangaranga, Huku took with him a supply of coconuts and two paddlers, who died and were buried on the isle of
Although Huku kept his discovery a secret, a man named Wheatu (or Featu) guessed that Huku had found new land. He set out in his canoe and arrived at Manihiki, and from there at Rakahanga, where he started to cut out a channel in the reef. Having a premonition of what was happening, Huku set sail again together with his sister, Tapairu (Tapaeru-taki-etu) and her husband Toa. Wheatu was driven off the island, and Huku went away too. Tapairu gave birth to four girls: Kae, Poe, Naunau, and Nanamu. To get the island populated Toa had no other choice but to take his daughters as wives. That is the origin of the Rakahanga-Manihiki people (14) at about the middle of the fourteenth century (15).
Another version of the discovery is given in a Rarotongan tradition. A man, named Are-ariki had settled on Tongareva. His wife was Takareu and his son Toa. They went to Rarotonga, but a fish-hook that Toa had let down into the sea, was left behind. Are-ariki sent his son back to fetch the hook. At his arrival Toa took the hook and angled for fish. The hook got entangled in something down in the sea. He hauled it up and saw a thing with branches. Leaving it there, he returned to Rarotonga to tell his father. Are-ariki said to him: “Return and pull it up, for it is land”. When Toa arrived once more at that spot, he found that Maui had already pulled up the land. They wrestled together and in that struggle the land was broken up into pieces through the treading of Maui's feet. There were three fragments: Raka-anga, Mani-iki, and Tukao (16).
The islet of
One pamphlet says that it is generally believed that Magellan may have discovered the island in 1521 (not 1561 as printed) (20), but no other reference has been found to substantiate it.
The last of the great Spanish voyages of exploration set sail from Callao on Dec. 21, 1605 under the command of
Gente Hermosa, the island of Beautiful Peregrina (Pilgrim). Another member of the expedition, La Matanza (Slaughter). Torres went ashore on March 3.
The accounts (there are seven published accounts) speak clearly of a permanent settled island, with a well-built village, consisting of houses with “gables and high lofts where they sleep.” Also mentioned are “soft and very fine mats” used for clothing and “knives, saws, chisels, punches, gouges, gimlets and fish-hooks” made of pearl-shell, large wooden fish-hooks, needles of bone and adzes. The Spaniards were struck by the outrigger canoes, in which most of the natives eventually fled across the lagoon, and large double canoes for inter-island navigation, seventy feet long, with a deck between, capable of carrying fifty people, masts like cross-trees, and sails of matting.
Manihiki was not permanently settled until 1852, and this island is also much more cut-up. We also know that the islet of
A Russian expedition of two sloops, the “Vostok” and the “Mirnyi”, sailed from Kronstadt on July 4, 1819 under the command of Admiral Grand Duke Alexander Island. The inhabitants came out in canoes and challenged the white men to fight by throwing stones and spears at the ship. The date is according to the Russian calendar, and twelve days must be added for the English calendar (24).
Captain Patrickson of the “Good Hope” named it Reirson Island on Oct. 13, 1820. Captain Little Ganges Islano in 1828 (25). Other names of the island were: French or Francis Island, Prinzess Marianne Island, Rierson Island, Alliconga Island (25a).
The native teachers, Aporo and Tairi, who landed on Manihiki in August 1849, crossed over to Rakahanga seven months later. During the passage some of the party were drowned (26). The teachers persuaded the people to divide themselves between the two island, because of the danger to life in crossing over. This was done in 1852 (27).
Commander A.C. Clarke of H.M.S “Espiègle” declared Rakahanga a British protectorate on Aug. 9, 1889 (28). The island was included in New Zealand's boundaries in 1901 (29). The population in 1902 was 400 (30).
Rakahanga was often spelt Rakaanga (31). An informant said that it was originally Hakahanga. The Pukapukans pronounce it as Lakawanga (32).
83:II 103–104
259:14
266:146–147
266:147
259:16
259:15; 171c
259:16
259:16–17
366b:72, 85; 275
259:5
107b:16
19:9
505:41
266:145
66:287
66:296
64:183
259:12
299:393
A high volcanic island, described as elliptical in shape, oval-shaped, and kidney-shaped.
Area: 67.2 km2. Circumference: 32 km. Diameter: 11.2 km E-W, 7.2 km N-S. Radius: 4.98 km. Max. altitude: 652 m; original height, may have been 900 m.
The central mountainous area is deeply dissected by numerous streams with steep valley sides, separated by razorback ridges.
The central core is surrounded by a narrow belt of terraces, fans, lowland flats and swamps: 880 to 1200 m wide. There are three sand-cays and one volcanic islet (Taakoka) in the Muri lagoon, and a sand-cay in the north opposite the airport.
The lagoon within the encircling reef is very small except on the southern, and south-eastern sides.
The submerged volcano is 50 km in diameter at a depth of 4,000 m. Depth of ocean floor 4,500 m.
Position: 21°12′06″S, 159°46′33″W. Population: 1966: 9,971, 1971: 11,437. 1975: 9,495.
Rarotonga to Auckland: 3447 km, to Tahiti: 1260 km
Rarotonga, the largest island of the group and its administrative centre, is certainly one of the most praised islands of the South Seas since its discovery by Europeans: “The Jewel of the Southern Seas” (1), “Queen-island of the Hervey Group” (2), “Summer Isle of Eden” (3), “Island of Flowers” (4), and with regard to the language of its inhabitants: “The Vowal Island” (5). Rarotonga was already of great importance in pre-historic times, for “it appears in almost every list of islands known outside the Society group. This is probably an indication that Rarotonga was as important in the eyes of the Polynesians outside the Cooks, as it was to the Cook Islanders themselves” (6). This is true only, if the Rarotonga of the Polynesian legends and traditions is identical with modern Rarotonga as accepted by Smith (7). Sharp, however, doubts it, and is of the opinion that Rarotonga was a traditional placename like “Hawaiki” (8). If we accept the identification, Rarotonga did welcome many visitors to its shores in olden days from all over the Pacific.
Tu-te-rangi-marama, that is Tu-(bathed)-in-the-light-of-heaven, or Erect-in-the light-of-heaven (9), is said to be the first discoverer of the island. That was about A.D.450. From him descended Tamarua (10). During a temporary absence of Tu, the island was visited by Tangaroa (not the god) and Au-make from Iva (Raiatea or the Marquesas?). Au-make chopped the hill overlooking Arorangi, Rae-maru, in half. Later Tu returned (11).
The next visitors, also from Iva, were Ngare and a woman, named Toko. Ngare gave his name to a stream in Arorangi: Vai-o-Ngare. Toko named the passage through the reef at Arorangi: Vai-Toke (12).
The god Tonga-iti found the island still floating on the ocean and his wife, Ari anchored it firmly. However, the land was taken away from them by Toutika, who diverted the Avana stream (13). Another tradition calls the wife of Tongaiti: Mei-ove or Rangatira (14).
At about A.D. 650 Ui-te-rangiora came to Rarotonga. He was the first to sail far to the south into the Tai-uka-a-pia, the ice or frozen sea (15).
In the ninth Century two canoes arrived; one from Iva with Ata-i-te-kura and one from Haapai (Tonga) with the two brothers: Apopo-te-akatinatina and Apopo-te-ivi-roa (16).
The traditional discoverer of Ao-tea-roa, Kupe, paid a visit to Rarotonga too, according to the New Zealand Maori tradition. That was in the tenth century (17) At about 1050 Toi from Iva built Rarotonga's backroad, called Te Ara-nui-o-Toi (18). This road follows generally the foot of the hills, cutting across the mouths of valleys, leaving the level flat outside, or seaward of it. It is paved for about two-thirds of its length with flat volcanic or coral stones. Its width is about 5 to 7 meter (19).
Other visitors after the Apopo brothers were Nga-Peina, Te Marangai-ariki, and three more canoes (20). Arekea, an ancestor of Karika, came from Uea, that is Wallis Island (21).
The famous Rata ariki, who lived either at about 725 or about 1100, resided for some time at Vaiakura. His descendants held possession of the land up to the period of Tangiia. Rata is an ancestor of Ruatapu of Aitutaki and of the Tinomana family of Puaikura (Arorangi) (22).
Another famous voyager, who visited Rarotonga, was Iro-nui-ma-oata (Whiro). With him came Kaukura. Iro's son, Tai-te-ariki, was later adopted by Tangiia, who renamed him: Te Ariki-upoko-tini. He is the ancestor of the Pa-ariki family of Takitumu (Ngatangiia) (23). Iro visited also Mangaia, Aitutaki, Mauke, Atiu and Mitiaro (24).
The final and definitive settlement of Rarotonga took place in the thirteenth century with the coming of Karika from Samoa and Tangiia-nui from Tahiti (25). Usually this event is placed at about 1250, but Gill gives 1223 or possibly 1198 (26).
Other visitors at that time were: Tutapu (27),
New Zealand traditions tell that the canoes, Takitumu, Te Arawa, Tainui, Matatua, Tokomaru and Kura-haupo called in at Rarotonga on their way to Ao-tea-roa (37). The ancestors of the New Zealand Takitumu migration, Paikea, Ira, Ruatapu, Hakiri-rari, and others, are sons or grandsons of Motoro, a son of Tangiia (38). The tribes of the East Coast of New Zealand's North Island, and the Hawke's Bay tribes are descended from Rarotongan ancestors (39). Tamarau, the ancestor of the Hapu-oneone, might have come from Arorangi (40). The Ngutu-au people were used, it is said, to sail to and fro Rarotonga (41).
An island, whose lofty mountains and fertile shores welcomed so many voyagers, could not escape being named many times.
The first to arrive, Tu-te-rangi-marama, named the island Te Tupua-O-Avaiki,
A New Zealand tradition says that Tu named the island Tipu Hawaiki (44). “Tipu” is “tupu”, that is “growth” (45). Another N.Z. tradition calls Rarotonga's first discoverer Tutu-te-aroaro, or Turangi-marama, who named the island Tipu-Aki Hawaiki (46).
Tonga-iti, who found the island floating around, named it Nuku-Tere, that is Floating Island. He climbed onto it and trod it to make it firm. His wife, Ari, dived down to fix its foundations. It was then named Tumu-Te-Varo-Varo (47).
One tradition claims that Tu-te-rangi-marama gave the island the still favourite name of Tumu-Te-Varovaro (48). Slightly different is a New Zealand account which says that Timu-te-varovaro was an atua (god), who made known the existence of unknown lands. He guided Tu-te-rangi-marama to Rarotonga (49).
In any case both Tu-te-rangi and Tongaiti are connected with this ancient name in the story of Tangiia. Before Tangiia came to Rarotonga, he went to Avaiki and had an interview with the gods. Tu-te-rangi and Tongaiti decided to give him great powers, and to set aside some particular land for him to dwell in. Then the two gods said to Tangiia: “There is a home for us two, named Tumu-Te-Varovrro; go to that land and live there until you die” (50).
Karika too is said to have named the island Tumu-Te-Varovaro-O-Tonganui, that is Tumu-te-varovaro-in-the south (51). Another legend mentions that the island was so called before Karika, for he told his parents, and later Tangiia, that he was going to Tumu-Te-Varovaro (52).
Gill gives as the meaning of this classical name: echo (53). Kiva interpreted it as “ko te manava o te enua”, and this was translated as: The Heart or Source of life (54). This is a faulty translation as “enua” does not mean “life” but “land”. Both translations are unsatisfactory. “Tumu means “cause” or “source”; “varovaro” means “continous sound”, especially “deep, hollow, booming sounds” (55). A literal translation is: Cause, or Source of Booming Sounds. This might refer to the sound caused by the waves breaking upon the reef, clearly heard by someone approaching the island by canoe. The name of Nuku-Te-Varovaro (56) would mean: Land of the Booming Sounds.
The honour of naming the island by its present-day name Rarotonga is claimed for four of its discoverers. One tradition simply states that it was Tongaiti, who gave this name to the island that he found floating around down to the south (57).
The famous navigator, Iro, visited the island once, and then returned to Tahiti. Some years later he decided to go back to the countries of the south. On his way down he met Tangiia at Mauke. In reply to Tangiia's question: “Where are you going?”, he answered: “I am going (down) to the south.” ‘Raro’ is ‘down’, and ‘tonga’ is ‘south’ (58).
Others claim that Tangiia declared the name of the island to be Rarotonga (59). In his first attempt to locate the island, Tangiia sailed too far to the south: “Tei raro aia i te tonga”, that is: he was down (too far) to the south (60). But he picked the island up on his way back to the north. Hence the name Rarotonga, that is: down, or below south (61). Seen from Tangiia's point of departure (Tahiti) the island was to the west and to the south. Thus another
Karika too is said to have named the island Rarotonga, when he first sighted the island on coming from the north-east, because it was to leeward (raro), and towards the south (tonga) (64). Another reason for Karika's naming the island Rarotonga is that it was the name of his marae at Manu'a (Samoa) (65), or the name of the district in which his marae was situated (66). On his second voyage to Rarotonga (he is said to have made 8 voyages to the island), Karika brought with him a relation, named Tu-Rarotonga (67). According to a Pukapukan tradition, Rarotonga was a mountain of Yaiake; their name for Tahiti and surrounding islands. Once two ariki, Turi-yauora and Tuyimate, quarrelled and the land was divided. One piece was carried to the south. Hence the name Rarotonga, that is Tonga to the West, for it was once located further to the east (68).
An old priest told
Fata-fehi, the father of Tonga's king at that time, said that the name Tonga was carried to Rarotonga, or Lalotonga as he called it, by Ruatapu. The meaning of it is “under-Tonga”, for the people gave the name “Tonga” to some elevation, hill, or mountain, under which they lived on the sea-beach, or on flats surrounding the hills. So it was a Tongan canoe, manned by Tonga men, who took the name Tonga with them, and landing at the base of a hill, called the spot Lalo-Tonga (70). Gill translated Rarotonga as “Western Tonga”, a name given in loving memory of Western Tonga, or Tonga Tapu (71).
It is interesting to note that Sharp questions the identification of Tumu-te-varovaro with Rarotonga. He claims that they were two different islands in the Tahitian tradition, but that
Savage in his Dictionary says that the first name of the island was Pu-Kaikai-O-Papa, or Pukai-Taringa-O-Papa; the last name meaning: The Ear Lobes of Papa (73). No other reference to this name has been found, but an explanation is possible.
The Polynesian gods had been human ancestors before they were made divine (75). In addition to gods and demi-gods, certain natural phenomena and evolutionary concepts were added to the pantheon in the personifications of Atea - Space, Papa - Earth foundation, Te Tumu - The Source or The Cause, and Hakahotu - Coral Upgrowth. At one stage in their theological development the priests made up a story to provide the divine family with supernatural parents. The earth provided the lower recumbent female partner,
Te Pukai-Taringa-O-Papa defines Rarotonga as a part of the anatomy of Papa, the earth-stratum, which became the Earth-mother.
In a booklet written by a Papaa an old name of Rarotonga is said to be Tumu-Whenua (77). “Whenua” is not Rarotongan, but N.Z. Maori; the Rarotongan word is “enua” =land. Thus the meaning of that name is: Cause (of the) Land. The reason for giving it as an old name is probably the N.Z. Maori tradition that the god Timu-te-varovaro, who guided Tu-te-rangi-marama to Rarotonga, was also known as Timu (or Tumu)-Whenua (78). Two other ancient names of which nothing more has been found are said to be Tangi-Maki-Oki-Rangi (79), and Pukai-Tangitangi (80).
The spelling of Tumu-te-varovaro in the Tahitian lists is Toometoa-Roaro, and Toometo-Roaro (81). In the same lists Rarotonga is spelt as Rarotoa, Rorotoa, Orarothoa, O-Rarotoa (82). The Tahitian spelling is Raroto'a (83). Captain Goodenough wrote Loratonga (84), Lamont: Rorotonga (85), and Ellis Rarotogna (86). It was also printed as Raritonga (87). The Tongans say Lalotonga (88).
The official European discoverer of Rarotonga is the missionary
Long before the coming of the Gospel a pirate ship was
There is enough evidence that the mutineers of the “Purutea, but this might have been Mangaia. According to local tradition a man named Maia stole a box in which were found oranges and motini. That was how Rarotonga got its oranges (92). The statements that the “
An American whaler reported an island, named Drotoi, about the position of Rarotonga, and placed it on American charts, but Captain Hervey of H.M.S. “Havannah” failed to find it (95).
Captain Henry of Tahiti is said to have discovered an island, which he called Druruiti, in 1811. It is shown on French charts at about the position of Rarotonga (96). Others spelt the name as Druruti (97).
In September-October 1813 the brig “Endeavour”, sailing from Walker's Island. It turned out to be Rarotonga, where the “Cumberland” arrived in May 1914. As no sandalwood was found, they collected the yellow dye wood, nono, and helped the Takitumu tribe to make an attack on the Tinomana people. A European woman who travelled on the ship was kidnapped by the natives, and eaten. The “Cumberland” left on Aug. 12, 1814, taking with her two Rarotongan women; Tapaeru Ariki and her companion,
On May 23, 1814 the vessel “Seringapatam” came close to Rarotonga, and the next day some natives, who came out in their canoes, were permitted to come aboard (103).
On Aug. 25, 1814 the “Campbell Macquarie” under Armstrong Island, and said to be discovered by Captain Reynolds in 1817 (106).
After one unsuccessful search,
The first permanent missionary,
On March 5, 1824 Captain White of the “Medway” found Rarotonga, and as it was not shown on any scart, he called it Roxburgh Island (113).
In the 1830's and 1850's many whaling ships and trading schooners called at Rarotonga for supplies and merchandise. In the season 1850/51 seventy-five vessels - fifty-five whalers - visited the island (114).
The British Flag was hoisted on Rarotonga on Oct. 26, 1888 by Captain Bourke (115). The proclamation of annexation to New Zealand was read by Lord Ranfurly, Governor of New Zealand, on Oct. 8, 1900 (116), The population in 1902 was 2,060 (117).
On January 28, 1974 the Rarotongan International Airport was offically opened by Her Majesty Queen Elisabeth II.
Regular air services to Rarotonga began in 1945 after the New Zealand Public Works Department built an airstrip in 1944. The New Zealand National Airways Corporation operated a fortnightly Dakota service via Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa and Aitutaki. Tasman Empire Airways Limited later opened a monthly island service known as the “Coral Route” flying Solent sea-planes between Auckland and Papeete via Fiji and Aitutaki. The N.A.C. services ceased in 1952 and the monthly Solent flight became fortnightly until it closed in 1960. Since then the Rarotongan airstrip was used infrequently by the R.N.Z.
The new International airport is situated at Nikao, some 2 miles west of Avarua. The size of the airfield is 166 acres, the length is about 2400 m (7,800 feet) and the width about 230 m (756 feet) (118).
40:46
329:634
98:124
81:48
98:131
32a:105
358:192–194
192:141
360:218
351a:22–24, 25–26; 358:40–43; 232; 369; 366 1:113–127; 343:209 note 11; 3a:168–170; 21:460
369:58
351a:22–24, 25–27; 351b:65–67; 351d:275–276, 276–277; 372:104–108, 119–125; 339: 3–9; 358:202–209, 30–40; 366e,f, h, j; 20:119–121; 78:41–45; 368; 171a; 343:202–205; 335a; 125d; 95:1 263–282
329:630
358:37
358:37
369:58
372:113–114
358:facing p. 48; 369a
41b:54
41b:121.
41b:166–167
339a:1, 2
366b:64, 69
316:122
14:147
316:122
339a:1, 2
366h:190, 203
351b:66, 67, 70, 72
192:16
339a:1, 2
161:453–454
366i:4
351a:22, 25–26
351a:23, 26
343:203
358:186
332:7
339b:4, 7
306:174, 175
218:56–57
161:276;
366k:60–69
349:21
349:21
32b:133
32b:135
358:148
291:72
189:I 102, 126
72:141
62:121–125
358:194–195
187:3
332:8
332:8
348:50
377:428
63:363
63:364
358:194
218:19
213:25
66:296
64:183
An atoll, quadrilateral in shape, or irregularly circular.
Lagoon: 15.3 × 12.8 km. Land-area: 0.4 km2 (estimate).
Position: 13°14′40″S, 163°06′15″W.
Population: 1966: 0, 1971:1, 1975: 1.
Suwarrow to Equator: 1468 km, to Rarotonga: 950 km, to Aitutaki: 713 km, to Manihiki: 385 km, to Pukapuka: 398 km, to Palmerston: 533km.
The most southern atoll of the Northern Cooks does not have a Polynesian tradition, and no Polynesian name of the island has been found. However, the atoll became famous, first in the 19th century as a “treasure island”, and in the 20th century as the habitat of a modern Robinson Crusoe,
In October 1813 a Russian vessel, the “Suvorov” under the command of Suvorov (2). Suvorov was a muscovite general, famed for his siege of Ismael (3). The Russian name was often spelt as Suvarow, or Suwarrow, the latter is the spelling adopted by New Zealand, and now the official spelling (4). It was also spelt as Souvarov (5), Souvaroff (6), Souwaroff, Souworoff (6a).
However, the island must have been visited by the Papaa much earlier. In 1855 (or 1848) an American whaler “Gem” was wrecked on its reef. The Captain and crew went to the Navigators Islands (Samoa) and later to Tahiti. Here the wreck was sold to Messrs Hort Brothers. One of their vessels, “
In 1860 an Englishman,
The island was surveyed by
While clearing the centre of one of the islets, Sterndale found lime kilns, stone and concrete walls and platforms, skeletons, flint lock, iron bolts, and a musket. It all pointed to the occupation of the islet by some Europeans long before the visit of Lazarev (12).
Sterndale thought it not impossible that they may have been Spaniards, making their way to the Indies by the Straits of Magellan (13). He added, that these Europeans might have exterminated some tribe of aborigines, for human bones and fragments of barbarian implements were distributed all over the islet, even to a depth, in some places, of eight feet beneath the surface of the soil. He also mentioned that “there is a tradition among the neighbouring Polynesians of an inhabited island, called Malo, which cannot now be found. We may well be justified in supposing this to have been the place, if the abundance of relics of mortality, and the rotten stumps of ancient coconut groves, are reliable data whereon to construct such a theory” (14). Another theory is that the musket and iron artifacts are from the crew of the Pandora's cutter, which disappeared off Palmerston in 1791 (15). The “Pandora” was the frigate sent by the Admiralty to search for the mutineers of the “
Captain W. McF. Castle of H.M.S. “Rapid” annexed the island to Great Britain on April 22, 1889, and part of Anchorage island was set apart as an Admiralty Reserve, because of its land-locked harbour (16). On Oct. 20, 1900 the New Zealand House of Representatives added the island of Suwarrow to the list of islands to be annexed by New Zealand (17). The atoll was included in the extension of New Zealand's boundaries in 1901, after the qualms of the Admiralty had been removed (18). The population of the island in 1902 was 30 (19).
In 1903 a lease was acquired by Lever Brothers, who attempted to introduce gold-lipped pearl shell from Torres Straits, but without success (20). A.B. Donald Ltd were the lessees in 1923 (21).
An oval sand-cay, surrounded by a living coral reef on the southern part of a shallow “shelf” about 200m deep.
Area: 1.2 km2 Diameter: 1.6 × 1.2 km Maximum altitude: 6m
Position: 19°48′35″S, 158°18′W
Population:0 Takutea to Rarotonga: 218 km, to Atiu: 16 km
The original name of the island was Areuna (1) until it was renamed by Mariri, one of Atiu's ancestors. When Mariri returned for the third time from Avaiki to Atiu together with his wife, he landed on the small islet, which he had seen on his previous visits to Atiu. While fishing, he caught a “white Ku”, that is “Ku tea”, and therefore called the island Taku-Ku-Tea, that is: My White Ku (2), later shortened to Takutea. The “Ku” is a red fish, a variety of squirrel fish (3). The fact that Mariri caught a “white Ku” was reason enough to name the place in memory of this event.
Another name of the island is Enua-Iti, that is: Small Island. It was probably a descriptive term added to the proper name (4).
The fresh water well, called Vaipiro because of its lead colour, was dug by Manatu (5).
Cook reached the island on April 4, 1777, and sent boats ashore to collect food (6). He spelt the name Enua-iti as Wenuaaete (7) or Wenooaete (8). Anderson recorded the name Takutea as Otakoo Tata (9). Commander (Nicolls of H.M.S “Cormorant” declared the island to be under British protection in June 1889 (10).
Takutea was visited by the Atiuans to collect coconuts and seabirds, and they regarded the island as tribal land. However, in 1902 the Land Court awarded Takutea to
The statement that an early Resident Administrator claimed the island on behalf of Queen Victoria in the late 19th century, and that the island was handed over to the chiefs and people of Atiu on 1905 (12) is obviously not correct.
The Cook Islands Administration sent gangs to plant the island under the supervision of
Tima, an Aitutakian warrior sailed to Nassau, but was chased away by Ngalewu. On his return to Aitutaki he passed the reef nearby and named it Te Toka-O-Tima, the Stone of Tima (1). It is now known as Tima Reef or Tema Reef (2).
The reef was sighted by Commodore John Byron on June 21, 1765 (3). Captain William Williams of the missionary ship “
The only islands with a collective name in pre-historic times were the three windward islands of the Cooks: Atiu, Mauke, and Mitiaro, which were known as Nga-Putoru (1), a name still used today. A literal translation is: The Three Masters. Mr MLA, stated that the name refers to the three Ariki, and consequently the three tribes on each of the three islands.
With the coming of the Papaa the islands were put together into two distinct groups: the Lower or Southern Group, and the Northern Group. This rather natural division is still in use today. The names commonly used are: Northern Cooks, or in Maori: Te Pa Enua Tokerau, and the Southern Cooks, or the Lower Group, in Maori: Te Pa Enua I Raro Nei.
During the missionary period the Southern Group was said to comprise seven islands: Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Mangaia, Atiu, Mauke, Mitiaro and Manuae (2). Lamont added: Palmerston, Takutea and Suwarrow (3). Sometimes Palmerston was included in the Northern Group (4). At present Palmerston is part of the Lower Group; politically it is part of the Rarotonga constituency of Te Au-o-Tonga. Suwarrow is included in the Northern Group (5).
In the missionary literature the Southern Group is called the Hervey Islands (6), the name that Captain Cook gave to the first discovered atoll in this part of the Ocean, and now known as Manuae. This name was already used in Ellis' Polynesian Researches, of which the second edition was published in 1831 (7). It was still used when the islands became a British Protectorate in 1888 (8).
Variations are: Hervey Group (9), Hervey Island Group (10), Hervey Isles (11), and Harvey Islands (12).
The name of Captain Cook was attached to the Southern Group by the Russian hydrographer and cartographer, Admiral Cook Islands (13). Variation were: Cook's Islands (14), Cook Group (15), and Cook's Group (16). This name was still used for the Southern Cooks only in 1901, when the New Zealand Parliament passed “the Cook and other Islands Government Act” (17).
In the 1829–1848 correspondence and documents of the “Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith” concerning the erection of Apostolic Vicariates in the Pacific the Southern Cooks are referred to as the Archipelago Of Mangeea, or Mangea, that is Mangaia (18). The use of this name is probably based on French Atlasses of the beginning of the 19th century. At that time Rarotonga was still unknown, and Mangaia the largest of the islands discovered by Cook in this part of the Pacific.
In the sub-title of his “Gems from Coral Islands”, Rarotonga Group (19), naming them by the name of the largest island, and seat of the mission headquarters.
The first collective name of the Northern Group is found in the above mentioned documents of the “Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith” — the Department for the Missions of the Roman Curia of the Catholic Church. These islands are referred to as the Archipelago Of Roggewein (20). This is without doubt based on French Atlasses (21).
Roggewein is the French rendition of the name of the Dutch Pacific Explorer,
In the 2nd half of the 19th century the Northern Group was called: the Penrhyn Islands (24), as Penrhyn was the most frequently visited island by whalers and traders in those days.
After the establishment of the R.C. Mission in the Cook Islands (1894), it was called the “Pro-Vicariate of the Cook and Manihiki Islands (25). The name Manihiki Islands was also used on the map added to the book of Seddon's Visit to the Cook Islands (26). Another reference to these islands is The Manihiki's (27).
When Rome made the R.C. Mission of the Cook Islands independent of the Vicariate of Tahiti, it erected the “Apostolic Prefecture of the Cook and Manihiki Islands” on Nov. 27, 1922 (28). This was changed into the “Apostolic Prefecture of the Cook Islands” On Aug. 11, 1926 (29). The name of Rarotonga was — rather unfortunately — applied to both groups, when Rome erected the “Diocese of Rarotonga” in 1966.
Manihiki Islands to the Northern Cooks, the Tokelau Islands, Caroline, Vostock and Flint Islands. The term Manihiki Islands is still used by the International Amateur Radio Union, which list the Northern Group as one country, called the Manihiki Islands, and the Southern Group as another country, called the Cook Islands.
On the National Geographic Society's maps of the Pacific (30) the Northern Cooks, with the exception of Nassau and Suwarrow, and the Tokelau Islands are said to be administered by New Zealand and claimed by the United States.
In 1926 all but five of these islands were considered to be British possessions. They were under the jurisdiction of the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific, with the exception of the Tokelau, Northern Cooks and Nauru (34).
The question of sovereignty rose again after the first trans-Pacific flight by Kingsford-Smith from San Francisco to Sydney by way of Honolulu, Kauai, Suva, and Brisbane in 1928. A new claim was made by the secretary to President Roosevelt in March 1938 (35).
In 1965 the U.S. Government re-affirmed its claim, indicating by name: Pukapuka, Manihiki, Rakahanga, and Tongareva. The State Department, however, added with reference to the Northern Cooks that: “The reference in the Department of State's Geographic Bulletin to the claim of the United States is a routine, administrative act derived from the historical position of the United States in this regard, and is not intended to imply that the United States is actively pursuing or supporting the claim.” (36).
228c:177–178, 180–181
291:72
189:I 3
198:5
216:541
75:195
66:296 note 2
188:24, 31, 32, 34
188:24, 30, 32, 33, 34
188:32 note 2
8:181
Torea Katorika 1914, no.1, p.3
186:186; Torea Katorika 1923, no. 113, p. 868
186:186
398; 399
63:86 note 9
63:86
63:88
The name Cook Islands appeared for the first time on a Russian map during the first half of the 19th century (1). However, it denoted only the islands of what is now the Southern Group. The last question is: When did all the fifteen islands become known as the Cook Islands? The answer is found in the story of their “discovery” by New Zealand, where
The L.M.S. missionaries did not found a theocratic kingdom in the Cook Islands for the simple reason that the islands were never united under a single king. Both the Northern and Southern Groups became rather a collection of theocratic kingdoms (3). The unifying factor was the Rarotongan mission centre with its Training Institution, Takamoa College, founded in 1837 (4).
For a long time neither the French nor the British were interested in the scattered islands west of Tahiti. The Islanders themselves were jealous of external influence. The intervention of the French in Tahiti and the Maori wars in New Zealand prompted the Rarotonga Chiefs in 1844 to ask the Directors of the London missionary Society to seek protection of the British Crown in case the French would move westwards (5). Laws were passed in Rarotonga and Mangaia prohibiting the sale of land and the marriage of native women to foreigners (6).
The first formal petitions for British protection were submitted by the Rarotonga Ariki, British residents and the L.M.S. missionary to Governor Grey of New Zealand in 1865. The Foreign Secretary secured an assurance from the French that they had no intention of annexing Rarotonga (7).
In 1881 the British Government appointed
It was early in December 1884 that the New Zealand politicians began to press for the annexation of the Cook Islands (Southern Group) (10). In Sept. 1885 a committee of the New Zealand House of Representatives stated that British intervention in the islands was justified (11). In October of the same year Makea and her husband, Ngamaru of Atiu, went to New Zealand, and held discussion with the Minister for Native Affairs,
New rumours of French intervention resulted in new petitons by Makea and Tinomana of Rarotonga and the Aitutakian Chiefs to the New Zealand Governor in May 1888. Finally the British Government agreed and on Sept. 27, 1888 the Vice-Consul, R. Exham, proclaimed a protectorate over the Southern Group, that is: Rarotonga, Mangaia, Aitutaki, Atiu, Mauke, Mittiaro and Takutea (14).
A month later the H.M.S “Hyacinth” arrived, and
This action in the Hervey or Cook Islands led to action in the atolls to the North, which were closely linked to Rarotonga, their religious and trading centre. One by one the atolls were placed under British protection or annexed (16).
A Protectorate retained a fairly complete measure of internal artonomy (17). The British Resident, F.J. Moss, appointed by the New Zealand Government in October 1890, took up his duties in April 1891 (18). His first task was to establish some kind of federal regime. He called a conference of delegates from Rarotonga, Mangaia, Aitutaki, Atiu and Mauke. They met on June 4, 1891 to provide a law for the good government of the islands. It became the Parliament of the “Federation of the Cook Islands” (19).
In 1893 the jurisdiction of the Western Pacific High Commissioner in Fiji was extended to the Cook Islands (20). In 1898
The Status of Protectorate brought freedom of Religion. The Seventh Day Adventist ship “Pitcairn” called at Rarotonga, Aitutaki and Mangaia in 1891. Their first representative was
The first Roman Catholic priest, Fr George Eich, SS.CC., visited Rarotonga in 1893. After brief visites to Mauke and Atiu, Fr Eich and Fr Bernardin Castanié landed at Avarua on Oct. 29, 1894 (25). On July 10, 1895 Mr Moss drafted a note in which he stated that he could not see on what grounds Roman Catholics can be opposed in building a church (26). The first church, St. Joseph's, was dedicated on Christmas 1896 (28). The Sisters of St Joseph of Cluny opened a school on July 30, 1895 (27).
In April 1896 the Colonial Office offered to the New Zealand Governor, Glasgow, the possibility of annexation of the Cook Islands to New Zealand, on condition that it would not provoke opposition among the islanders. Glasgow answered: “to annex the group to New Zealand would be of no benefit whatever to this Colony or to the islands, and I would think not be approved by the islanders to whom it might be the means of doing much harm” (29).
Lord Ranfurly, the N.Z. Governor, visited the Cook Islands in April 1899, and became convinced that annexation to New Zealand would be the best means to a strong and stable government (30). One year later on April 21, 1900 Makea and Ngamaru asked for annexation to the British Empire without attachment to New Zealand (31).
In 1899 the Federation celebrated Christmas twice to correct the calendar. The L.M.S missionaries were unaware of the International Dateline, when they came from Sydney. Thus the Cook Islands were one day ahead. The correction was largely due to the untiring efforts of Fr Castanié.
The New Zealand Prime Minister,
On Sept. 6, 1900 the Ariki of Rarotonga and Ngamaru as representative of the Nga-Pu-Toru asked for annexation to New Zealand, with the request to include Penrhyn, Manihiki, Rakahanga, Palmerston, Pukapuka and Niue (35). Mangaia had not been consulted (36). The inclusion of Niue was probably due to L.M.S influence (37).
The New Zealand Parliament passed a resolution in favour of annexation on Sept. 28, 1900 (38). Lord Ranfurly read the proclamation of annexation in Rarotonga on Oct. 8, 1900, after having secured a formal cession of the Chiefs. He repeated the ceremony at Mangaia, Aitutaki (without formal cession because of the annexation in 1888), Penrhyn and Niue (39).
The House of Representatives added the islands of Suwarrow and Nassau to those named in the September resolution on Oct. 20, 1900 (40).
An Imperial Order in Council of May 13, 1901 under the Colonial Boundaries Act of 1895 permitted the annexation of the Southern and Northern Groups of Islands to New Zealand. This Order came into effect on June 11, 1901 (41), when the Duke of Cornwall and York read a proclamation at Auckland, dated June 10, 1901 (42). The population of the Cook Islands in 1902 was: 8,213 (43).
On June 10, 1901 Niue was annexed to New Zealand and included in the Cook and other islands, although historically the island had been associated with Samoa and Tonga (44). During the visit of the New Zealand Minister-in-charge of the Cook Islands, C.H. Mills, in 1903, the Niuean spokesman strongly emphasised their wish to have direct communication with New Zealand without any connection whatsoever with Rarotonga. On Sept. 29, 1903 the Cook and other Islands Government Act was passed, and Niue placed under a separate administration (45).
The common name is Niue, but on formal occasions the name Niue-Fekai is used: its means: Niue all around the people. Other ancient names are: Nuku-Tu-Taha, that is: Island that stands by itself; Motu-Tefua, that is: Isolated Island; Fakahoa-Motu, that is: Island made flowering; Nuku-Tuluea, that is: Island that grew up by itself; Varekao, or Arekao; and Vare-A-Toa. Captain Cook named it Savage Island in 1774 (46).
In October 1901 the New Zealand passed “The Cook and other Islands Government Act” (47). Makea remained “Head of Government”, while the Resident Commissioner became chief executive in practice. A Land Titles Court was established under the Act in July 1902. The Federal Parliament was replaced by a Federal Council, which met for the first time in Rarotonga on Dec. 10, 1901. The first New Zealand Minister-in-charge of the Cook Islands, CH. Mills, was appointed on July 22, 1902 (48).
In 1908 the Cook Islands Ariki and members of the Rarotonga Island Council still claimed to be “a self-governing community under the British Crown”. But by the time of Gudgeon's retirement in 1909 it was apparent that the Cook Islands were not in fact a fully self-governing community. District Government and the Ariki Courts had been abolished. The only authority left to the Ariki was that of passing local ordinances, which were subject to the approval of the Resident Commissioner (49).
At the time of annexation in 1901 the islands were not yet known under the collective name of “Cook Islands”, as is obvious from the
Cook Islands, or Kuki Airani.
The process was completed in 1915, when the New Zealand Parliament passed “The Cook Islands Act 1915”. The Federal Council was abolished, and the term “Federation” discontinued. The Act tightened control from Wellington in matters relating to the Group as a whole. As a result the Cook Islands traditional leaders were forced further out of touch with executive government (50).
The Cook Islands Act 1915 defined the area of the Cook Islands as extending from 8 degrees South to 23 degrees South, and from 156 degrees West to 167 degrees West (51), an area of 2,201,490 km2, an area more than 8 times that of New Zealand, or almost the combined areas of France, Low Countries, West and East Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Austria, Czechoslavakia, Hungary, Rumania, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, or the combined areas of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador.
The land-area of the fifteen islands is 240 km2, that is .007% of the total area. They have a reef-line of 410.4km, and a lagoon-space of 566.6 km2 (52).
Standard time is 10 hours and 30 minutes behind Greenwich Mean Time. The population in 1966: 19,247, in 1971: 21,317, in 1975: 19,137.
The “Isles of Eden” (53) had become “New Zealand's Little Sister” (54), and its “Tropical Province” (55). Whether you call it “South Seas Paradise” (56), or “Not Quite Paradise” (57) is up to you.
In 1946 a new development in the history of the Cook Islands began with the erection of a Legislative Council, composed of an equal number of official and unofficial members. The latter were elected by the Island Councils. It was a first move towards participation of the Islanders in the government of their own country.
A further constitutional reform took place in 1957: the establishment of a Legislative Assembly of 22 elected members and four official members. It could make Ordinances for the peace, order and good government of the Cook Islands. Full budgetary control was handed over to the Assembly in 1962.
Under pression of the United Nations, which accused New Zealand of being a colonial power, the N.Z. Government offered to the Cook Islands four options: full independence, participation in a Polynesian Federation, integration with New Zealand, or full internal self-government. New Zealand itself chose internal self-government. During the 1963 session the Legislative Assembly adopted a report providing for full internal self-government in 1965. The Executive Committee was reconstructed in the form of a “shadow cabinet”.
In 1964 the Assembly discussed and adopted the Cook Islands Constitution Bill and Amendment Act. The New Zealand Parliament did the same. On the 28th of July, 1965, the Administrator of the Government of New Zealand signed the Proclamation to bring the Constitution into force on the 4th of August 1965. On that day the swearing-in took place of the High Commissioner as representative of Her Majesty the Queen in right of New Zealand Head of State of the Cook Islands, and also as representative of the
Another important date in the modern history of the Cook Islands is the 24th January 1974. On that day the National Ensign of the Cook Islands was officially raised on all the inhabited islands, except Pukapuka, Nassau and Palmerston, because they had not yet received their flags (59).
The new Ensign is green with a circle of 15 gold stars on the fly. The green colour is a symbol, of the vitality of the land and the people, of the evergreen and lasting growth of the Cook Islands. The stars are symbols of heaven and faith in God; it represents the powers which have guided the people throughout their history. The gold colour of the stare symbolizes the friendliness, hope, faith, dedication, love and happiness of the Cook Islanders. The circle of fifteen gold stars is a symbol of the togetherness, strength, and unity of purpose of the people, and expresses the moulding of the fifteen islands into one united land and people. Thus, colours and pattern chosen — green, gold, stars — represent the elements of the earth, the heavens and life, which encompass all the past, present and future, and are inspirations to be one united, free and dedicated people (60).
The new Flag was the result of a competition held during the first half of 1973. 120 Designs were received, and the final design by Mr. Len Staples was chosen by ballot at a meeting of Cabinet, the Flag Design Committee, the Judging Panel and art specialists, and formally approved by Cabinet in July 1973 (61).
In the Cook Islands Library and Museum in Avarua, Rarotonga, one can see a flag of three horizontal stripes - scarlet, white, scarlet, and three blue stars on the white. It is an old flag of Rarotonga. The three stars represent the three land and tribe divisions of the island: Te Au O Tonga, Puaikura (Arorangi) and Takitumu (Ngatangiia and Titikaveka).
see text, no. 17.4
36a:508
66:280
131:63
66:281
66:284
76:140, 234–235
76:235
76:237–238
66:285–286
148:55
76:243–244
76:257
318:288
176:10
66:291
202:11
318:303
66:291
202:11
76:259–260
89:217–382
89:424–442
172:25
66:295 note 5
76:269;
116:49
64:183, 189
66:296
172:28
66:296 note 2;
172:27
172:29
172:29
116:233
89:254
52:249
The Cook Islands are the result of volcanic activity and coralgrowth in the centre of the South Pacific Basin. The islands of Rarotonga, Mangaia, Atiu, Mauke, Mitiaro and Aitutaki are the emergent peaks of extinct volcanoes. Manuae, Palmerston, Penrhyn, Manihiki, Rakahanga, Pukapuka, and Suwarrow are atolls, that is coral reefs around a lagoon on the top of submerged volcanoes. Aitutaki is part volcanic, part atoll; it is also called a near-atoll. Takutea and Nassau are sand cays on a coral reef foundation.
The islands of Mauke, Mitiaro, Atiu, Takutea, Manuae, the Eclipse Sea-mount (between Manuae and Aitutaki), Aitutaki, and after a small depression Palmerston form a linear volcanic chain with Wnw trend. This chain, a continuation of the Austral Islands chain, is probably due to a major fracture in the crust of the earth.
Rarotonga and Mangaia are on the crest of a separate arch surrounding the Mauke -Aitutaki chain. Rarotonga is probably due to crustal responses to the continued sinking of the main Mauke-Aitutaki group.
The volcanic activity of the Mangaia, Atiu, Mauke and Mitiaro volcanoes was followed by subsidence: the peaks sank below sea level, and barrier reefs grew around the submerged peaks. Later the peaks and surrounding reefs rose slowly above the surface of the ocean, or the level of the sea dropped beneath the peaks and coral reefs. A new coral reef grew around them below sea level. The raised coral reef surrounding the emergent peaks is called “makatea”. The four islands are raised coral or makatea-type islands.
The atolls of the Northern Group, except Penrhyn, rise from the periphery of a broad, shallow platform, which is termed the Manihiki Plateau.
This plateau, 2,500–3,000 meters below sea level, and covering an area of 600,000 km2, is thought to be one of the micro-continents of long ago (2). It is sited along the axis of the Darwin Rise, and was probably levelled in the Cretaceous (136 to 65 million years ago).
Manihiki-Rakahanga are on the Nne-trending eastern margin of this plateau, and Pukapuka, Nassau, and Suwarrow are on the Wnw-trending southern margin. Penrhyn lies between the Manihiki Plateau and the Line Islands, and is the highest of the extinct volcanic mountains of the Cooks with a relief of over 4,876 meters.
Niue, once within the political boundaries of the Cook Islands (1901/3), does not belong to any of the Southern Cooks' mountain chains. It is an isolated coral island near the head of the Tongan Trench, entirely composed of limestone, which caps a submerged volcano. About 30 km to the east are two Seamounts: the Endeavour and Lachlan Seamounts. A third, smaller seamount, lies 30 km to the south-east.
The eruptive phase of the Cook Islands volcanoes, except Rarotonga, took place in the early Tertiary age (Palaeocene), some 65 to 60 million years ago. It is thought that the Northern group volcanoes stood high above sea level at that stage. They subsided during the Eocene (60 to 38 million years ago).
In the raised coral reef of Mangaia fossils of the Oligocene (38 to 26 million years ago) and Miocene (26 to 7 million years ago) have been found.
The Mangaia reef at plus 2m yielded radiometric ages of 90 plus/minus 20 and 110 plus/minus 20 thousand years. The makatea at Ngatangiia, Rarotonga, may be of similar age. The main reef formation at Rarotonga and Aitutaki was constructed before the last ice-age (15,000 years ago). A raised reef at Avarua, Rarotanga, at plus 1 m above low water, was dated as 2,130 years B.P. (before the present), while the nearby reef at plus 2 m is older than 43,000 years B.P.
Rarotonga is the youngest of the Cook volcanoes. Lavas showed radio-metric ages of 2.3 - 2.8 million years (Pliocene). Some of the phonolitic eruptions, which followed the basaltic eruptions, might be as recent as the Pleistocene (less than 2 million years ago). The volcanic core is surrounded by Pleistocene gravels and sands.
The Cook Islands Maori are Polynesians. This fact turns one's mind to the familiar question: Where did the “Vikings of the Sunrise” come from? Today's answer is quite simple: The Polynesians developed as Polynesians in Polynesia itself. They are all the descendants of a small group of people, who once settled in the Tongan Islands.
Remain the question: Where did these original Tongan settlers come from?, and from where are their remote ancestors?
Up to about 40,000 years ago the Pacific east of Java and Borneo (Indonesia) was uninhabited by human beings. Then, some 40,000 years ago small groups of people, who did not practise agriculture and did not make pottery, entered Oceania to settle in Australia (from the Latin: Terra Australis: Southern Land), and Melanesia (Black Islands). The other two parts of Oceania: Micronesia (Tiny Islands), and Polynesia (Many Islands) remained still unsettled for thousands of years.
Some 8,000 years ago civilized peoples, who practised agriculture and made pottery, lived in South East Asia, Eastern Indonesia, and the Philippines. Their languages belonged to a language-family, known as “Austronesian”. At present this language-family includes some 500 languages (that is 10–15% of the languages of the world), spoken in Malaya, Indonesia, Philippines, Madagascar, Formosa (Taiwan), Vietnam, Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia (1).
Some 5–6000 years ago some of these Austronesians from the Formosa-Philippines-Celebes region came to Oceania along the north coast of New Guinea, and finally reached the Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides, and Fiji. When entering Oceania, their language developed into a sub-branch of the Austronesian language-family, now called “Oceanic”. Whether they passed through Micronesia or not, is still disputed (2). The languages now spoken in the Southeast Solomon Islands, the Northern New Hebrides, and the Central Pacific (Fiji and Polynesia) belong to a branch of the Oceanic languages, called “Eastern Oceanic”, which was spoken more than 4000 years ago.
From Fiji a group of migrants sailed to the Tongan Islands some 3500 years ago (about 1500 B.C.). It was there that these Austronesians developed into a new race over a period of a thousand years: they became direct ancestors of all Polynesians. Their language evolved into a new language, now called “Proto (first or earlier)-Polynesian”, a sister language of Fijian.
At about 300 B.C. some Tongans migrated to Samoa, and in a few hundred years their language became “Nuclear Polynesian”. Soon after the beginning of the Christian era migrants from Samoa reached the Marquesas and perhaps the Society Islands. From this Eastern Polynesian centre canoes brought people to Easter Island at about A.D. 400, and to Hawaii, Austral and Cook Islands between A.D. 500 to 800, and also to Mangareva and New Zealand. Niue was settled from Tonga by the 4th century A.D.; Pukapuka was probably settled from Samoa (and Tonga?). (3).
In 1944 Sir period: 1100–1300: original discovery and settlement from the Society Islands with the possibility of some migrations from Samoa and Tonga; period: 1300–1820: internal development in relative isolation, but with possible influence from the Society or Austral Island; period: 1820– : post-missionary period.
Proto-East Polynesian phase (A.D. 0–500): from this period might be six adzes found in Tutakimoa and now in the Cook Islands Museum; Early East Polynesian phase (500–1100): from this period are two adzes from Mangaia, two from Rarotonga, and one from Nassau, Rakahanga and Palmerston each; Resettlement or Transitional phase (1100–1400): two adzes from the Southern Cooks; Classic phase.(1400–1821): many adzes of the Southern Cooks; European Contact phase (1821–1888).
In his “Farewell Message” after the first archaeological expedition to Rarotonga Dr Duff wrote; “In Rarotonga…many people believe that their history began with Tangiia-nui and Karika, about 600 years ago. But to build their Marae and Kouti ariki, these ancestors travelled along the Ara Metua, which Toi built 300 Years earlier. Such a road could not have been built without a large population, and, for the population to have grown large enough, we must allow 500 years before Toi. It is likely then that Rarotonga and the Southern Cook Islands have been occupied by Polynesians for 1500 years” (6).
In an address to a general meeting of the Cook Islands Library and Museum Society Mr H. Parker said: “It was thought likely that the 16,000 acres of available land (in Rarotonga) had been occupied by human beings for a period of not much less than 2,000 years” (7).
Excavations behind the beach at Ureia, Aitutaki, have shown that this island was settled as early as A.D. 900.
Before going to Penrhyn (in 1972) Dr Bellwood expressed hopes that settlement in this area will be found to go back some 2000 years, to parallel dates of this age known already from Samoa and the Marquesas.
Adele isl. 8.2
Ahoua-hou 3.11
Ahu-ahu 3.11
Aitotake 1.8
Aitoutaki 1.8
Aitutaike 1.8
Aitutake 1.8
Akalava 3.7
Akatautika 3.5
Akatoka-manava 6.4
Alliconga isl. 128
Ararau-enua 1.5
Axa'ura 1.5
Arakao 18.7
Areuna 15.1
Armstrong Isl. 13.13
Atien 2.11
Atiou 2.11
Atoui 2.11
Atui 2.11
Avarau 9.1
Bennett Isl. 10.4
Bukabuka 11.5
Cook Group 17.4
Cook's Group 17.4
Cook's Islands 17.4
Danger Isl. 11.6
Discoverys Isl. 3.11
Drotoi 13.12
Enua-iti 15.1
Enua-Kura 5.3
Enua-o-Ru 1.2
Enua o te au atua 2.2
Fakahoa-motu 18.7
Fararanga 10.3
Fenooa-manoo 2.11
Four Evangelists, Isl. of the 10.5
Francis Isl. 12.8
French Isl. 12.8
Garden Isl. 3.1
Gente Hermosa 4.3; 12.8
Gland Isl. 4.3
Grand Duke Alexander Isl. 12.8
Great Ganges Isl. 4.3
Hakahanga 12.10
Harvey Islands 17.3
Harveys Island 5.5
Harveys Isle 5.5
Hervey Group 17.3
Hervey Island 5.5
Hervey Islands 17.3
Hervey Island Group 17.3
Hervey Isles 17.3
Hervey's Isles 5.5
Humphrey Isl. 4.3
Island of Danger 11.6
Island of Flowers 13.1
Isles of Eden 18.11
Itotake 1.8
Jewel of the Southern Seas 13.1
Katu-o-te-toka 11.1
Katutia 2.11
Kuki Airani 18.9
Lakawanga 12.10
La Matanza 12.8
Liderous Isl. 4.3
Little Ganges Isl. 12.8
Little Sister, N.Z.'s 18.11
Loratonga 13.11
Loutre Iles De La 11.6
Lower Group 17.2
Lydra Isl. 8.2
Maketu 6.4
Malo 14.3
Mangaeea 3.11
Mangaia 3.6
Mangaia-nui-neneva 3.6
Mangerongaro 10.3
Mangea 3.11
Mangea, Archipelago 17.5
Mangee 3.11
Mangeea 3.11
Mangeea, Archipelago 17.5
Mangeer 3.11
Mangerongaro 10.3
Mangia 3.11
Mangia-nooe-nai-naiwa 3.11
Mangya 3.11
Manahiki 4.5
Manaia 3.11
Manauai 5.3
Maniaa 3.11
Manihiki 4.5
Maniiki 4.5; 12.6
Manitea 3.7
Manke 6.5
Mante 6.5
Manuae 5.3
Manu-enua 5.3
Manuhiki 4.5
Manuwai 5.3
Manuyiki 4.5
Maonia 3.11
Maouti 6.5
Mattiaro 7.2
Mauke 6.1
Mauké 6.5
Mauki 6.1
Maute 6.5
Mauti 6.5
Metiaro 7.2
Mitchell Isl. 8.2
Mitiaro 7.2
Mitiero 7.2
Miti-vai-aro 7.2
Mittiero 7.2
Moe-no-tayo 5.3
Monahiki 4.5
Motea-aro 7.2
Motia-aro 7.2
Motu-ngaongao 8.1
Motunono 8.1
Motu-tafua 18.7
Nga-Pu-Toru 17.1
Nassau 8.2
New-Port Isl. 8.2
Niue 18.7
Niue-Fekai 18.7
Northern Cooks 17.2
Northern Group 17.2
Nukuloa 11.5
Nuku-o-Ngalewu 8.1
Nuku-roa 7.2
Nuku-tere 13.7
Nuku-te-varovaro 13.7
Nuku-Tuluea 18.7
Nuku-Tu-Taha 18.7
Oaauaha 3.11
Oahooahoo 3.11
Oahoo-hoo 3.11
O Ahoua-hou 3.11
Oaiyu 2.11
Oateeu 2.11
O Poopooa 11.5
O-Popooa 11.5
Orarothoa 13.11
O-Rarotoa 13.11
O-Rimatema 9.1
Oruruiti 13.12
Oruruti 13.12
Ostler 10.5
Otakoo-taia 15.2
Owha-va-rouah 3.11
Pa Enua i raro nei 17.2
Pa Enua Tokerau 17.2
Palmerston 9.3
Palmerstone Islands 9.3
Palmerstons Island 9.3
Palmerston's Islands 9.3
Pamati 9.3
Parry Isl. 6.5
Panrhyn 10.4
Penrhyn Islands 17.8
Peregrina 12.8
Pescado Isl. 4.3
Pitaka 10.3
Prinzess Marianne Isl. 12.8
Pukaikai-oPapa 13.9
Pukai-Tangitangi 13.10
Pukai-Taringa-o-Papa 13.9
Pukapuka 11.5
Pukatea 10.3
Queen-island of the Harvey Group 13.1
Rakahanga 12.4
Ranger Isl. 8.2
Rapukatea 10.3
Raritonga 13.11
Rarotoa 13.11
Raroto'a 13.11
Rarotogna 13.11
Rarotonga 13.8
Rarotonga Group 17.6
Raupukatea 10.3
Reirson Isl. 12.8
Rierson Isl. 12.8
Rogg
Rorotoa 13.11
Rorotonga 13.11
Roxburgh Isl. 13.14
San Bernardo 11.6
Sandwich Isl. 5.5
Sarah Scott Isl. 4.3
Savage Isl. 18.7
Siren Isle 4.1
Southern Cooks 17.2
Southern Group 17.2
South Seas Paradise 18.11
Souvaroff 14.1
Souvarou 14.1
Souwaroff 14.1
Souworoff 14.1
Summer Isle of Eden 13.1
Suvarou 14.1
Suvorov 14.1
Suwarrow 14.1
Taku-ku-tea 15.1
Takutea 15.1
Tangi-maki-oki-rangi 13.10
Tapuae-manu 5.3
Tapua'ua 12.1, 2
Te Au-o-Tu 5.1
Ta Au-o-Tupui 5.1
Tema Reef 16.1
Temanno 2.11
Te-Manno 2.11
Te Rae-o-te-pa'u 6.4
Te Rougge mau atooa 5.3
Te Ruaeke mau atua 5.3
The Manihiki's 17.8
Tima Reef 16.1
Tipuaki Hawaiki 13.6
Tipu Hawaiki 13.6
Toka-o-Tima 16.1
Tongalelewa 10.3
Tongaliliwa 10.3
Tongareva 10.3
Tongarewa 10.3
Toometoaroaro 13.11
Toometo-roaro 13.11
Tropical Province, N.Z.'s 18.11
Tumu-te-varovaro 13.7
Tumu-te-varovaro-o-Tonganui 13.7
Tumu-whenua 13.10
Tupua-o-Avaiki 13.6
Tu-Tataki-enua 1.5
Uaitutate 1.8
Ulu-o-te-Watu 11.1
Uru-Pukapuka-Nui 9.1
Utataki-enua 1.5
Ututaki 1.5
Vaitutake 1.8
Vare-a-toa 18.7
Varekao 18.7
Vatiu 2.11
Vowel Isl. 13.1
Walker's Isl. 13.13
Watdu 2.11
Wateeoo 2.11
Watiou 2.11
Watiu 2.11
Watu-a-Mataliki 11.5
Wautieu 2.11
Wenooaete 15.2
Wenuaaete 15.2
Wenua-no-Eatua 2.10
Whakahotu 12.1, 2
Whatdew 2.11
Whylootackee 1.8
Whytootacke 1.8
Wytootackee 1.8
Wytootach 1.8
(see also no. VII. Manihiki)
Population figures for 1966: no. 158.
Population figures for 1971: Cook Islands Statistical Bulletin. Quarterly Abstract of Statistics, Third Quarter 1972, Table 1 (Preliminary figures Census 1971).
The population figures of 1975 were sent to me by Mrs C. Temata, Librarian of the Cook Islands Library and Museum.