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New Zealand's Burning — The Settlers' World in the Mid 1880s

Notes & References

page 291

Notes & References

Notes

A Abbreviations

AJHR Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives
ATL Alexander Turnbull Library
AWN Auckland Weekly News
CNZ Cyclopaedia of New Zealand
EP Evening Post (Wellington)
HS Hawera Star
HBH Hawke's Bay Herald
HBWC Hawke's Bay Weekly Courier
LT Lyttelton Times
NZJH New Zealand Journal of History
NZM New Zealand Mail (Wellington)
TH Taranaki Herald
TN Taranaki News
VUW Victoria University of Wellington
Y Yeoman (Wanganui)

B Newspapers

Most of the newspapers consulted were small daily or thrice-weekly publications, with only two or three pages of text apart from advertisements. Page references have not been given for these. The weekly newspapers were much more substantial, so for these page references are given.

Some sections of Part I are based on an intricate collation from several newspaper sources, and no attempt has been made to provide detailed references for these. Care has been taken to date events in the text so that the sources can be traced with little difficulty.

C Statistics

Most of the statistics used in this study have been drawn from three official sources:

(1)

Statistics of New Zealand—a single-volume, annual publication during our period.

(2)

New Zealand Census Returns—again a single-volume publication at this time.

(3)

AJHR1886, D-1, RETURN No. 10—the New Zealand Railway's ‘Statement of Revenue and Expenditure of each Station for the Year ended 31st March, 1886’.

Statistics from these three sources have not been referenced. References have been given for statistics drawn from other sources.

page 292

References

Part One
Fire Storm Summer
1 Moments of Crisis and Decision

1 Chapter 4 below gives a full treatment.

2 TH, 12/1/1886; HS, 18/1/1886; Y, 22/1/1886; RGO.

3 Colonist (Nelson), 14/1/1886; J. Halket Millar, High Noon for Coaches 1879–1979, 2nd ed., Wellington, 1979, esp. pp. 16–61.

4 LT, 8/1/1886; CNZ, 3, p. 808.

5 HBWC, 22/1/1886, p. 11; M.E. Macgregor, Early Stations of Hawke's Bay, Wellington, 1970, pp. 33–4.

6 NZM, 22/1/1886, Supplement, p. [1]; EP, 30/12/1885, p. 2.

7 G. Jobberns, ‘Life and Landscape in New Zealand’, New Zealand: Inventory and Prospect, Wellington Branch, N.Z. Geographical Society, Wellington, 1956.

8 E.g. S.H. Franklin, ‘The Village and the Bush’, in John Forster, ed., Social Process in New Zealand, Auckland, 1969, pp. 112, 124; G.C. Petersen, ‘Pioneering the North Island Bush’, in R.F. Watters, ed., Land and Society in New Zealand, Wellington 1965, p. 66.

9 W.J. Gardner, The Farmer Politician in New Zealand History, Massey Memorial Lecture, Massey University, Palmerston North, 1970, esp. pp. 2–6, for this group as distinct from the ‘squatter’ politicians who were prominent in the earlier decades.

2 The Setting of the Pyre

1 Marlborough Express Weekly Edition, 23/1/1886, p. 10.

2 Ibid., 30/1/1886, p. 10.

3 Nelson Evening Mail, 19 & 25/1/1886.

4 Manawatu Standard, 13/1/1886.

5 Star (Christchurch), 5/12/85; Nelson Evening Mail, 23/1/1886; Otago Daily Times, 22/1/1886.

6 James Hight and C.R. Straubel (eds.), A History of Canterbury, 1, to 1854, Christchurch, 1957, pp. 2–3. For a particular example see W.J. Gardner, The Amuri: a county history, Culverden, 1956, p. 33.

7 LT, 19/1/1886.

8. LT, 26/1/1886.

9. Rollo Arnold, ‘The opening of the Great Bush, 1869–1991: a social history of the bush settlements of Taranaki, Hawke's Bay and Wellington’, PhD thesis, VUW, 1971, pp. 426–7.

10. Ibid., pp. 428–9.

11. Ibid., p. 429.

12. Ibid., passim, provides full documentation of the sources for the remainder of this chapter.

13. James Inglis, Our New Zealand Cousins, London, 1887, pp. 103–5.

14. HS, 26/10/1885.

15. Egmont Star, 7/2/1885, p. 9.

3 Hawke's Bay and the Seventy-Mile Bush

1 Arnold, ‘Opening of the Great Bush’, pp. 394–7, 495–6; Warren Bayliss, Takapau: The Sovereign Years, 1876–1976, Hastings, 1975, p. 42

2. HBWC, 27/11/85, p. 6.

3. TN, 9/1/1886; HBH, 16/12/1885.

4. HBH, 22/12/1885

5. The remainder of this chapter is mainly an intricate collation of items from HBH, HBWC, Daily Telegraph (Napier) and Woodville Examiner for the period 23/12/1885—1/2/86.

6. Evening News and Hawke's Bay Advertiser (Napier), 17/12/1885. This account of the journey is from the News's Special Reporter with the train.

4 Taranaki and the Stratford Fire Storm

1 TN, 9/1/1886, p. 3.

2 HS, 10/6/1954.

3 CNZ, VI, p. 166.

4 CNZ, VI, p. 47; HS, 25/1/1943.

5 TH, 9/1/1886.

6 Pamela Brewer, ‘Starting a Farm at Cardiff page 293 in Taranaki’, Historical Journal: Auckland-Waikato, 24, April 1974, p. 31; Owen Mander, Cardiff School and District Centennial, [Cardiff, 1886], p. 5.

7 HS, 7/1/1886.

8 This account of Stratford on 6 January 1886 and of the fires over the following days is mainly an intricate collation of items from HS, TH and TN for the period 7/1/1886—16/1/86.

9 See p. 1 above.

10 TH, 29/3/1955 (Obituary of Mrs Catherine Curtis).

11 Waipawa Mail, 28/1/1886 (reprinting from Auckland Star).

12 EP, 20/1/1886. Death certificate of Alice, wife of late Edward Gilshnan, 25/3/1944. For Joseph Belcher's reminiscences see Cardiff Co-operative Dairy Factory Company Limited: Diamond Jubilee 1891–1951, [New Plymouth, 1951], pp. [4]—[5]]. Joseph dates the fire as 8/1/1886, and has the two men continue the fight for his place till 3 the following morning.

13 Cardiff Co-operative Dairy Factory Co. Lid: Diamond Jubilee, p. [5].

14 TH, 9/1/1886.

15 TH, 8/1/1886.

16 TH, 9/1/1886.

17 William Henry Skinner, ‘Diary 1886’, MS, Taranaki Museum.

5 Relief and Reconstruction—Hawke's Bay

1 Australasian Insurance and Banking Record, 15/2/1886, p. 112.

2 The account which follows is mainly an intricate collation of information from HBH, HBWC and Woodville Examiner for the period 23/12/1885—26/2/1886.

3 HBH, 2/1/1886.

4 HBWC, 26/2/1886, p. 10.

5 15/2/1886, p. 113; 15/3/1886, p. 178.

6 H.E. Combs, Growing up in the Forty Mile Bush, Hamilton, 1951, pp. 30–2.

6 Relief and Reconstruction—Taranaki

1 HS, 7/1/1886. The account which follows is mainly an intricate collation of items from HS, TH, TN and Y for the period 7/1/1886—20/2/86.

2 See e.g. EP, 13 & 14/1/1886; LT, 13/1/1886.

3 HS, 16/1/1886.

4 AWN, 23/1,1886.

5 TH, 16/1/1886.

7 Wellington and Auckland Province

1 TN, 16/1/1886, p. 6

2 Chapter 9 below gives a full treatment.

3 NZ Times, 1–9/1/1886 for all the fires in this paragraph.

4 Wairarapa Daily, 7–23/1/1886 for this and the next paragraph.

5 Manawatu Standard, 4 & 9/1/1886.

6 Feilding Star, 9 & 12/1/1886.

7 Ibid., 23 & 26/1/1886.

8 Ibid., 26 & 28/1/1886; Manawatu Standard, 27/2/1886—5/3/1886.

9 AWN, 20/2/1886, p. 21, & 27/2/1886, p. 21.

10 Waikato Times, 21 & 23/1/1886.

11 Waikato Times, 29/12/1885—30/1/1886; AWN, 2/1/1886, for this and the next two paragraphs.

12 AWN, 9/1/1886—27/2/1886 for this and the following two paragraphs.

8 The South Island

1 This account of the Southland fires is based on reports in the Southland Times and Southland Daily News for the period 21/12/1885 to 15/1/1886.

2 Australasian Insurance and Banking Record, 15/1/1886, p. 53.

3 Star (Christchurch), 7/12 1885.

4 LT, 1/3/1886.

5 LT, 11/3/1886.

6 LT, 12/3/1886.

7 LT, 24, 28 & 29/12/1885.

8 LT, 28 & 31/12/1885.

9 LT, Jan—Mar 1886, esp. 8/1/1886, 9 & 12/3/1886.

10 LT, 8/1/1886.

11 LT, 9/1/1886.

12 Ibid.

13 Chapter 1 above.

page 294

14 LT, 29/12/1885.

15 Nelson Evening Mail, 13/1/1886.

16 Marlborough Daily Times, 29/12/1885; Marlborough Express, 2/1/1886, p. 9.

17 Marlborough Daily Times, 28/12/1885; Marlborough Express, 9/1/1886, p. 13.

18 Marlborough Express, 2/1/1886, p. 7.

19 Marlborough Express, 9/1/1886, p. 13; Nelson Evening Mail, 6/1/1886.

20 Marlborough Express, 23/1/1886, p. 13.

21 Nelson Evening Mail, 8–22/1/1886; Colonist (Nelson), 8/1/1886.

22 Nelson Evening Mail, 7–8/1/1886; Colonist (Nelson), 8, 9 & 14/1/1886.

23 Nelson Evening Mail, 11, 18 & 19/1/1886.

24 Grey River Argus, 18/1/1886.

9 Fire in the City

1 By-laws of the Borough of the City of Wellington, p. 338, 1/11/1877, Wellington City Corporation.

2 NZM, 10/4/1880, pp. 11–12, 21–3; 24/4/1880, pp. 21, 24; 15/5/1880, p. 17.

3 Evening Press (Wellington), 30/12/1885.

4 Census Population 1867–7,460; 1886—25,945.

5 EP, 18/5/1868.

6 The main sources for this account of the buildings affected by the fire and the description of the fire which follows are EP, 29/12/1885—16/1/1886; Evening Press (Wellington), 29–30/12/1885; NZM, 22/1/1886, Supplement, p. [1] (a very useful report of the coroner's inquest on the fire).

7 New Zealand Free Lance, 14/1/1911, p. 5.

8 NZM, 24/4/1885, p. 18, 5/6/1885, p. 17.

9 NZM, 5/6/1885, p. 22.

10 NZM, 6/8/1896, p. 19; CNZ, I, p. 680.

11 Wise's Post Office Directory, 1880–81.

12 Wellington Almanack, 1878, 1881, 1884, 1885.

13 Wise's Post Office Directory, 1885–86; EP, 11/1/1886, p. 2 (advt).

14 NZM, 15/11/1891, pp. 22, 34, 41.

15 NZM, 22/1/1886, Supplement, p. [1].

16 TL 3/1/2, 3 July 1956, ATL; Wise's Post Office Directory, 1885–86.

17 NZM, 31/3/1883, p. 16; EP, 12/1/1886, p. 4.

18 NZM, 8/8/1890, p. 26, 22/8/1896, p. 25.

19 Australasian Insurance and Banking Record, 15/2/1886, p. 113.

20 EP, 30/12/1885.

21 Ibid.

22 Evening Press (Wellington), 30/12/1885.

23 Ibid., 29/11/1885.

24 NZM, 14/5/1886, p. 10.

25 NZM, 7/5/1886, p. 22.

Part Two
Anatomy of a Settler Society

1 Elizabeth Bowen, ‘Time, Period, and Reality’, The Listener, London, 8/11/1956, p. 751.

10 Patterns

1 For the key role of clocks in the modernising process see R.D. Brown, Modernization: The Transformation of American Life, 1600–1865, New York, 1976, pp. 134–5.

2 The daily and weekly work patterns of New Zealand settler women were much like those of early 20th-century American farm women as described in Joan M. Jensen, With These Hands; Women Working on the Land, New York, 1981, pp. 161–5.

3 AJHR, 1881, E-1B, p. 13.

4 Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France Volume II: People and Production, London, 1990, pp. 139–40.

5 Rollo Arnold, ‘The Village and the Globe: Aspects of the Social Origins of Schooling in Victorian New Zealand’, ANZHES Journal, 5, 2, 1976, pp. 1–12.

6 Hummer (Wagga), 10/9/1892.

7 Daniel J. Boorstin, The Americans: The National Experience, New York, 1965, passim. See especially Chapter 10 (pp. 6572).

8 Budget and Taranaki Weekly Herald (New Plymouth), 30/4/1892, p. 9.

9 For this aspect of Otago's education history see J.D.S. Mckenzie, ‘Local Authority and Educational Development: A page 295 Study of The Otago Education Board from 1877 to 1899’, PhD thesis, University of Otago, 1973, pp. 29–33, 50, 62–3, 125–39.

10 A. Dorset to Mrs Wilkinson, 17/4/1884, Wellington Education Board, Outward Letters, EBW 1/10, National Archives of N.Z.

11 J.C. Dakin, ‘The prevalence of mutual improvement in adult education in New Zealand 1870–1915’, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 10, 3, July-Sept. 1991, pp. 243–54.

12 See e.g. Rollo Arnold, ‘The Australasian Peoples and their World, 1888–1915’, in Keith Sinclair, ed., Tasman Relations, Auckland, 1987, pp. 52–70.

13 Maurice Keen, English Society in the later Middle Ages 1348–1500, London, 1990.

14 [J.D. Wickham], Ramblings by A Tramp, Auckland, 1888, p. 17.

15 TH, 9/1/1886.

16 R.T. McKenzie & A. Silver, Angels in Marble Working Class Conservatives in Urban England, London, 1968.

17 For Trimble in the role of pseudo-squire see Arnold, ‘Opening of the Great Bush’, p. 321.

18 Jefferson citations from A.W. Griswold, ‘The Agrarian Democracy of Thomas Jefferson’, American Political Science Review, 40, 4, Aug. 1946, pp. 667–8.

19 NZJH, 9, 1, April 1975, pp. 3–21.

20 For a good overview with a survey of the literature see Claire Toynbee, ‘Class and Social Structure in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand’, NZJH, 13, 1, April 1979, pp. 65–82.

21 Claire Toynbee, ‘Class and Mobility in Nineteenth Century Wellington: An Exploratory Study of Immigrants arriving 1840–1880’, MA thesis, VUW, 1979, pp. 8, 166–7.

22 Roberta Nicholls, ‘Elite Society in Victorian and Edwardian Wellington’, in The Making of Wellington 1800—1914, ed. D. Hamer and R. Nicholls, Wellington, 1990, p. 195.

23 Ibid.

24 G. Crossick, ‘The Emergence of the Lower Middle Class in Britain: A Discussion’ in G. Crossick, ed., The Lower Middle Class in Britain 1870–1914, London, 1977, pp. 21–5.

25 Charles Erasmus, In Search of the Common Good: Utopian Experiments Past and Future, New York, 1977.

26 Rollo Arnold, ‘Community in Rural Victorian New Zealand’, NZJH, 24, 1, April 1990, pp. 3–21

27 Richard Titmuss, The Gift Relationship: from Human Blood to Social Policy, London, 1970.

11 Rush

1 Rollo Arnold, ‘The Virgin Forest Harvest and the Development of Colonial New Zealand’, New Zealand Geographer, 32, 2, Oct. 1976, pp. 105–26.

2 AJHR, 1886, C3, C3A.

3 The sources of the data and the rationale for Figure 11.3 are set out in Appendix 1.

4 AJHR, 1886, C3, p. 5.

5 AJHR, 1886, C3A, p. 5.

6 A.H. Reed, The Story of the Kauri, Wellington, 1953; R.C.J. Stone, Makers of Fortune a Colonial Business Community and its Fall, Auckland, 1973; Duncan Mackay, ‘The Orderly Frontier: The World of the Kauri Bushmen 1860–1925’, NZJH, 25, 2, Oct. 1991, pp. 147–57.

7 AJHR, 1877, C3.

8 Southland Times, 21/12/1885; Wairarapa Daily, 7/1/1886; AWN, 16/1/1886, p. 14; Colonist (Nelson), 8/1/1886; LT, 9/3/1886.

9 Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism 15th—18th Century, Volume 1: The Structures of Everyday Life, New York, 1981, p. 367.

10 Michael Williams, ‘Clearing the United States forests: pivotal years 1810–1860’, Journal of Historical Geography, 8, 1, 1982, pp. 12–28.

11 Ibid., p. 18.

12 Wairarapa Daily, 23/1/1886; Woodville Examiner, 26/1/1886; HBH, 2/1/1886.

13 Feilding Star, 30/1/1886.

14 AJHR, 1886, D-1A, p. 21.

page 296

15 AJHR, 1886, C-3, pp. 10–4.

16 HS, 27/10/1886.

17 G. Ogilvie, Banks Peninsula: Cradle of Canterbury, Wellington, 1990, p. 230.

18 Ibid.

19 G.W. Graham & L.J.B. Chapple, Ellesmere County: The Land, The Lake, and the People, 1864–1964, [Leeston], 1965, pp. 23–4.

20 W.H. Scotter, Ashburton: A History with Records of Town and County, Ashburton, 1972, p. 65.

21 Nelson Evening Mail, 4/1/1886.

22 Ogilvie, Banks Peninsula, pp. 230–4.

23 W.L. Kennedy, ‘Stratford History’, MS 091 [c. 1939] P, ATL.

24 Y, 18/5/1883, p. 10.

25 879 is the figure for the official statistics, but year by year they record more ships entering Kaipara Harbour than leaving it. This huge harbour was administered by the Marine Department whose staff seem to have concentrated on customs checks on arrivals, thus missing many departures.

26 TL 3/1/2, 15 Jan., 3 & 13 Feb. 1972, ATL.

27 CNZ, VI, p. 166; Obit. of Catherine Rose Ralfe, TH, 29/3/1955.

28 Cardiff Dairy Company Records, MSS, Taranaki Museum.

29 HS, 23/8/1885.

30 HS, 18/1/1886.

31 HS, 10/6/1954.

32 Brett's Colonists' Guide and Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, ed. T.W. Leys, Auckland, 1883, pp. 723–6.

33 NZM, 20/3/1885, p. 23.

34 New Zealand Farmer, April 1890, p. 125.

35 Mick Reed, ‘The Peasantry of Nineteenth-Century England: a Neglected Class?’, History Workshop, 18, Autumn 1984, pp. 53–76.

36 G.C. Brodrick, English Land and English Landlords, London, 1881, p. 20.

37 J.D. Chambers and G.E. Mingay, The Agricultural Revolution 1750–1880, London, 1966, p. 57.

38 New Zealand Country Journal, 15, 4/7/1891, p. 328.

39 Taranaki Daily News, 28/7/1927.

40 Arnold, ‘Opening of the Great Bush’, pp. 668–9.

41 Egmont Star (Hawera), 18/9/1886, p. 2. This correspondent was in the bush of the Kaupokonui Survey Blocks, not at Kaupokonui township in the open country.

42 HS, 27/10/1886.

43 C.M. Arensberg and S.T. Kimball, Family and Community in Ireland, Gloucester, Mass., 1961, pp. 33–9.

44 Joan M. Jensen, ‘Butter Making and Economic Development in Mid-Atlantic America from 1750 to 1850’, Signs, 13, 4, Summer 1988, p. 822.

45 Ibid., pp. 816–7.

46 Charlotte Macdonald et al, eds., The Book of New Zealand Women: Ko Kui Ma Te Kaupapa, Wellington, 1991, sub Beaufort, Blanch, McMurray. See also Colleen Main (ed.), Our Lesser Stars: Twelve New Zealand Biographies, Auckland, 1990, pp. 21–2, 26, 180, 312–3.

47 Edward Wakefield, New Zealand after Fifty Years, London, 1889, pp. 138–9.

48 Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790–1865, Cambridge, 1981, p. 231.

49 Arensberg and Kimball, Family and Community in Ireland, pp. 46, 51, 53–4.

50 TH, 8/1/1886.

51 Ibid.

52 Chapt. 4.

53 R.D. Arnold, ‘The Country Child in Later Victorian New Zealand’, in Australasian Victorian Studies Association: Conference Papers 1982, ed. H. Debenham and W. Slinn, Christchurch, 1983, p. 9.

54 Reed, ‘The Peasantry of Nineteenth-Century England’, p. 57.

55 Braudel, The Structures of Everyday Life, p. 284

56 See e.g. Rollo Arnold, The Farthest Promised Land: English Villagers, New Zealand Immigrants of the 1870s, Wellington, 1981, pp 105–8.

57 Arnold, ‘Opening of the Great Bush’, pp. 404–16.

58 Egmont Star, 21/8/1886, p. 2 (reprinting page 297 from Feilding Star).

59 HS, 22/4/1886; Y, 25/6/1886, p. 11.

60 AJHR, 1886, C-3, p. 4.

61 Egmont Star, 14/8/1886, Supplement.

62 HS, 26/1/1886.

63 HS, 13/10/1885.

64 Egmont Star, 21/2/1885, p. 11; HS, 28/11/1885.

65 Reed, ‘The Peasantry of Nineteenth-Century England’, p. 58.

12 Country

1 Stevan Eldred-Grigg, A Southern Gentry: New Zealanders who Inherited the Earth, Wellington, 1980

2 See Arnold, Farthest Promised Land, p. 261.

3 Chapter 7 above.

4 Chapter 8 above.

5 Chapter 1 above.

6 Eldred-Grigg, A Southern Gentry, p. 54.

7 Ibid.

8 Ibid., p. 53.

9 Ibid., p. 122.

10 Brett's Colonists' Guide, pp. 132–42, for a substantial treatment of ‘Manures’.

11 This feldon yeoman district is covered by pp. 414–79, 647–72.

12 E.g. Graham and Chapple, Ellesmere County, passim; Main (ed.), Our Lesser Stars, Chapt. 1.

13 Arthur Clayden, The England of the Pacific, London, 1879, pp. 18–9.

14 Arthur Clayden, British Colonisation: A Colonial Want and an Imperial Necessity, London, 1891, p. 17.

15 J.D. Gould, The Grass Roots of New Zealand History: Pasture Formation and Improvement, 1871–1911, Palmerston North, 1974, p. 18.

16 Ibid., pp 5–6.

17 Ibid., p. 16.

18 B.R. Patterson, ‘Reading between the lines: People, politics and the conduct of surveys in the southern North Island, New Zealand, 1840–1876’, PhD thesis, VUW, 1985, p. 223.

19 Brett's Colonists' Guide, p. 77.

20 Y, 24/11/1882, p. 4.

21 HS, 14/10/1892 (reprinting from Bush Advocate).

22 Eldred-Grigg, A Southern Gentry, p. 52.

23 Weekly Hearld (Wanganui), 11/3/1876, p. 13.

24 M.N. Arnold, ‘The Market for Finance in Late Nineteenth Century New Zealand with Special reference to Rural Mortgages’, MA thesis, VUW, 1981. See pp. 43–8 for her methodology.

25 For examples see Arnold, ‘Opening of the Great Bush’, pp. 378–9; Arnold, ‘Community in Rural Victorian New Zealand’, pp. 7–8.

26 New Zealand Farmer, June 1891, p. 248.

27 Y, 7/11/1891, reprinting from LT.

28 Arnold, ‘Opening of the Great Bush’, pp. 380–1.

29 G. White and A. Monro, Waimamaku: the Story of a Hokianga Settlement, Auckland, 1941, pp. 7–8.

30 Frederick Hall, Christopher Hanham and John Hook.

31 White & Monro, Waimamaku, pp. 31, 44, 58.

32 Main (ed.), Our Lesser Stars, pp. 15–39.

33 Graham and Chapple, Ellesmere County, p. 171.

34 Ibid., p. 150, citing Wakefield, New Zealand After Fifty Years.

35 Ibid.

13 Town

1 E.W. Payton, Round About New Zealand, London, 1888, pp. 169–71.

2 Arthur Clayden, A Popular Handbook to New Zealand, London, 1885, pp. 197–8.

3 For example in 1884 the United Fire Brigades Association met there in January (B.C. Cathcart, ‘Water On!’ The First Hundred Years of the United Fire Brigades' Association of New Zealand, Palmerston North, 1978, p. 11), and the Senate of the University of New Zealand in February (AJHR, 1884 Sess. 1, E-5, p. 2).

4 Margaret Galt, ‘Doing Well for Bella: Foreign Mortgages in the New Zealand Financial System, 1885–1901’, NZJH, 18, 1, April 1984, pp. 50–65.

page 298

5 Ibid., pp. 59–60.

6 AWN, 14/7/1883.

7 Otago Witness, reprinted in Y, 12/5/1882, p. 11.

8 AWN, reprinted in Y, 4/2/1887, p. 12.

9 AWN, 14/11/1885, p. 7.

10 HS, 26/10/1885.

11 Reprinted TH, 7/4/1874.

12 Cited Y, 30/7/1886, p. 3.

13 27/5/1887, p. 9.

14 Arnold, ‘Opening of the Great Bush’, pp. 68, 660; NZM, 27/1/1888.

15 HS, 20/10/1885.

16 Arnold, ‘Opening of the Great Bush’, pp. 683–6.

17 AWN, 4/8/1883.

18 Rollo Arnold, ‘British Settlers and the Land’, in J. Phillips, ed., Te Whenua, Te Iwi: The Land and the People, Wellington, 1987, pp. 27–41.

19 Y, 23/3/1883, p. 7.

20 HS, 6/7/1885 & 6/10/1885.

21 HS, 10/1/1884.

22 HS, 23/6/1884.

23 HS, 5/11/1884.

24 HS, 8/10/1885

25 M. Leslie, et al, eds., Patea: A Centennial History, Patea, 1981, p. 144.

26 CNZ, VI, pp. 76, 234.

27 Campbell McAllister, Old Taranaki and its Mountain, Wellington, 1976, for a list of the buyers.

28 New Plymouth Sash and Door Factory and Timber Co., Shareholders' Register, MS, New Plymouth City Library.

29 Arnold, ‘Opening of the Great Bush’, pp. 383–5.

30 The part played by these leaders will be more fully examined in Chapter 17.

31 In the Wellington Almanack 1886.

32 CNZ, I, pp. 663.

14 Sinews

1 John Armstrong, ‘The role of coastal shipping in UK transport: An estimate of comparative traffic movements in 1910’, The Journal of Transport History, 3rd series, 8, 2, Sept. 1987, pp. 164–78, is the model on which the following discussion of the relative contributions of railways and coastal shipping has been based. See pp. 164–5 for his discussion of ton-mileage as the most informative and accurate measure of total cargo movement.

2 See Appendix 3 for these calculations.

3 Armstrong, ‘Role of coastal shipping in UK transport’, p. 166.

4 Wanganui Chronicle, 5/9/1885. A good complement to our treatment of the colonial coastal trade in the mid 1880s is Peter J. Rimmer, ‘The Changing Status of New Zealand Seaports, 1853–1960’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 57, March 1967, pp. 88–100. While the main weight of the evidence for Rimmer's article is borne by the statistics of the value of overseas trade for the various ports, he does have some valuable discussion of the coastal trade. See also Simon Ville, ‘The Coastal Trade of New Zealand Prior to World War One’, NZJH, 27, 1, April 1993, pp. 75–89.

5 Ruth Allan, The History of Port Nelson, Wellington, 1954, p. 11.

6 Y, 9/1/1885, p. 3.

7 TH, 5/6/1886, p. 3.

8 Gavin McLean, The Southern Octopus: The Rise of a Shipping Empire, Wellington, 1990

9 Wanganui Chronicle, 5/9/1885

10 We are taking Northland as consisting of the six counties of Mangonui, Bay of Islands, Hokianga, Hobson, Whangarei and Rodney.

11 John O'C. Ross, Pride in their Ports: The Story of the Minor Ports, Palmerston North, 1977, p. 17.

12 P. A. Eaddy, ‘Neath Swaying Spars; the Story of the Trading Scows of New Zealand, Auckland, [1939]

13 Note that a minor part of the East-West and West-East figure consists of sailings around North Cape and Cape Providence.

14 All figures for distances between ports are taken from New Zealand Nautical Almanac and Tide Tables 1914, Wellington, page 299 1918 (translated into land mile equivalents).

15 P.S. Bagwell, ‘The Decline of Rural Isolation’, in G.E. Mingay, ed., The Victorian Countryside, London, 1981, Volume 1. p. 34

16 Y, 7/11/1884, p. 6; Statistics of New Zealand, 1885, p. 204.

17 [Wickham], Ramblings by A Tramp, p. 32.

18 AWN, 28/4/1883, p. 6

19 HS, 20/10/1885

20 HS, 6/7/1885

21 HS, 6 & 22/7/1885

22 Y,14/8/1885, p. 4, 4/9/1885, p. 4; HS, 5/8/1885

23 HS, 22/7/1885

24 For an example see Arnold, ‘Community in Rural Victorian New Zealand’, p. 16.

25 New Zealand Farmer, August 1891, p. 338, for fruit tree agents, ‘book fiends and picturesque atlas agents’.

26 Rangitikei Advocate, 7/3/1890. For an example of life at the end of a pack horse track see Arnold, ‘Community in Rural Victorian New Zealand’, pp. 8–9.

15 Nerves

1 AJHR 1886, F-1.

2 Eric Pawson and Neil Quigley, ‘The Circulation of Information and Frontier Development: Canterbury 1850–1890’, New Zealand Geographer, 38, 2, Oct. 1982, pp. 65–76.

3 See Budget (New Plymouth), 25/2/1892, for founding of Inglewood Record and Waitara News in June 1892.

4 D.R. Harvey, Union List of New Zealand Newspapers before 1940, Wellington, 1985, pp. 48, 75, 96, 114, 127.

5 AJHR 1886, E-1B, p. 24.

6 HBWC, 20/4/1886.

7 For an outline of his career see Angela Finnerty, ‘William Frederick Howlett c. 1850–1935: Schoolteacher and Botanist’, Ms Papers 2012, ATL.

8 HS, 27/10/1886. For the next stage of Finlay's trip see Arnold, ‘Country Child in Later Victorian New Zealand’, pp. 8–9.

9 HS, 7/11/1928.

10 HBWC, 5/2/1886, p. 17

11 Weekly Herald (Wanganui), 4/5/1878, p. 16.

12 Y, 29/1/1881, p. 2.

13 Y, 3/1/1891, p. 8.

14 Reprinted in [Wickham], Ramblings by A Tramp.

15 See AWN, 12/5/1883—30/6/1886 and 20/4/1889—18/5/1889.

16 Patrick Day, The Making of the New Zealand Press 1840–1880, Wellington, 1990, p. 238.

18 G.A. Cranfield, The Press and Society from Caxton to Northcliffe, London, 1978, p. 202.

19 Day, Making of the New Zealand Press, p. 217–9.

20 TH, 8/1/1886.

16 Fire

1 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 41, 479 (15/6/1882).

2 Manawatu Standard, 4/1/1886.

3 Gordon Kear, A Century of Service: A history of the Palmerston North Fire Brigade 1883–1983, Palmerston North, 1983, pp. 14–6, for the account which follows.

4 Gilbert White, The Natural History of Selborne, London, 1924, p. 32.

5 Stephen J. Pyne, Burning Bush: A Fire History of Australia, New York, 1991, p. 163.

6 See Roger Wells, ‘Rural Rebels in Southern England in the 1830s’ in C. Emsley and J. Walvin, eds., Artisans, Peasants and Proletarians, 1760–1860, London, 1985, pp. 124–65, passim.

7 E.J. Hobsbawm and G. Rudé, Captain Swing, London, 1969.

8 Edward Gibbon Wakefield, Swing Unmasked or, The Causes of Rural Incendiarism, London, [1831].

9 E.L. Jones, Seasons and Prices, London, 1964, p. 41.

10 Pyne, Burning Bush, p. 261.

page 300

11 Feilding Star, 12/1/1886.

12 Marlborough Express Weekly Edition, 7/1/1885, p. 14.

13 Ibid., pp. 4, 13.

14 F.W. Pennefather, A Handbook for Travellers in New Zealand, London, 1893, p. 73.

15 Y, 22/4/1887, p. 5.

16 NZ Parliamentary Debates, 41, 479 (15/6/1882)

17 Ibid., 477.

18 LT, 9/3/1886.

19 NZ Parliamentary Debates, 41, 481 (15/6/1882).

20 D.G. Head, From the Ashes: 100 Years of the Gisborne Fire Brigade, [Gisborne, 1988], p. 20.

21 Hirst Family, Letters, 1820–96, MS [1820–1896]P, ATL, Vol. 10, letter dated 27/1/1886.

22 HBWC, 1/1/1886, p. 11.

23 Head, From the Ashes, p. 19.

24 B.C. Cathcart, ‘Water On!’ The First Hundred Years of the United Fire Brigades' Association of New Zealand, Palmerston North, 1978, for the history of the association.

25 HBH, 27/1/1886.

26 HBH, 30/1/1886.

27 NZ Parliamentary Debates, 41, 480 (15/6/1882).

28 Cathcart, ‘Water On!’, p. 12.

29 M.D.N. Campbell, Story of Napier 1874–1974, Napier, 1975, pp. 41–2.

30 A.B. Scanlan, 100 Years of Firefighting: The New Plymouth Fire Brigade 1866–1966, New Plymouth, 1966, pp. 10–17.

31 T.N. Moore, Hawera Fire Brigade 1882–1982: A Centennial History, Hawera, 1982, pp 13–20.

32 Pyne, Burning Bush, pp. 221–2.

33 TN, 16/1/1886, p. 14.

34 [Wickham], Ramblings, pp. 83–5.

17 Leadership

1 Robert C. Tucker, Politics as Leadership, Columbia, Missouri, 1981, p. 14.

2 R.F. Hebert and A.N. Link, The Entrepreneur, New York, 1982, p. 108.

3 Tucker, Politics as Leadership, p. 16.

4 Ibid., pp. 18–9.

5 Day, Making of the New Zealand Press, esp. p. 240.

6 G.R. Hawke, ‘Acquisitiveness and Equality in New Zealand's Economic Development’, Economic History Review, 2nd Series, 32, 3, Aug. 1979, p. 385.

7 Ian R. Fletcher, ‘Parties in the New Zealand House of Representatives 1870–1890’, MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 1982, p. 2.

8 Ibid., p. 4.

9 New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 59, 338 (5/12/1887).

10 Margaret Tennant, Paupers and Providers: Charitable Aid in New Zealand, Wellington, 1989, esp. Chapter 2.

11 Arnold, Farthest Promised Land, pp. 249, 252–4.

12 Weekly Herald (Wanganui), 10/3/1875, p. 5; NZM, 18/9/1875, p. 17.

13 Weekly Herald (Wanganui), 22/7/1876, p. 5.

14 NZM, 19/1/1878, p. 16.

15 HS, 2/7/1885.

16 Tennant, Paupers and Providers, p. 209, footnote 15.

17 Mary Boyd, ‘John Davies Ormond’, in The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Vol. 1, Wellington, 1990, pp. 324–5, for Ormond's career.

18 Arnold, ‘Opening of the Great Bush’, pp. 397, 677–8; New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, 48, 581 (24/7/1884).

19 HBH, 2/1/1886.

20 Evening News and Hawke's Bay Advertiser, 29/12/1885.

21 Ibid., 30/12/1885.

22 Ibid.

23 HBH, 31/12/1885 issue is missing from the files at ATL.

24 HBWC, 8/1/1886.

25 HBH, 4/1/1886.

26 Ian McGibbon, ‘Henry Stokes Tiffen’, in Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Vol 1, pp. 539–40.

27 R.S. Hill, The Colonial Frontier Tamed: New Zealand Policing in Transition 1867–1886, Wellington, 1989, pp. 195–9, 288, page 301 361.

28 Woodville Examiner, 5/1/1886.

29 HBH, 5/1/1886.

30 The following month a newspaper elsewhere in the colony recorded the spread of a false rumour among the colony's telegraphists. It reports that during the crisis it was suggested to Inglewood's telegraphist that he might help by keeping his station open for extended hours. His irritated response of ‘That's pretty hot!’ was garbled into a report that the fires had reached Inglewood and nearly roasted its telegraphist at his post. It would seem from this that the telegraphists used the lines in slack hours to build up camaraderie among themselves. Unfortunately when I saw this item I did not immediately recognise its significance, and I have not been able to relocate it.

31 HS, 20/11/1885.

32 HS, 7 & 8/1/1886.

33 HS, 9/1/1886.

34 HS, 26/1/1886. The colony's Governor adopted a similar strategy, forwarding a cheque for £10 through his private secretary to George Marchant (Budget and Taranaki Weekly Herald, 30/1/1886, p. 7). This donation was received by the Hawera committee on 23 January (HS, 23/1/1886), and so came too late to have any influence on the resolution of the rift.

35 TH, 9/1/1886.

36 TH, 14/1/1886.

37 EP, 14/1/1886.

38 Ibid.

39 Ibid.

40 TH, 29/1/1886.

41 HS, 14/1/1886.

42 TH, 5/2/1886.

43 AWN, 23/1/1886, p. 21.

44 HS, 15/1/1886.

45 Y, 7/5/1886, p. 13.

46 AWN, 27/2/1886, p. 13.

47 ‘The Tawhiti Flour Mill’, Typescript Notes, Tawhiti Museum, Taranaki.

48 Y, 25/5/1883, p. 4.

49 Paul Voisey, Vulcan: The Making of a Prairie Community, Toronto, 1988, p. 5.

50 Patea Mail, 3/12/1886.

51 Leslie, Patea: A Centennial History, gives the company's story only seven words (p. 17).

52 Y, 8/10/1886, p. 13. See also Y, 14/1/1887, p. 13.

53 Patea Mail, 11/8/1886.

54 HS, 16/12/1885.

55 Egmont Star, 18/9/1886, p. 2.

56 HS, 16/8/1882.

57 Arnold, ‘Community in Rural Victorian New Zealand’, p. 15.

58 HS, 16/4/1883; Y, 25/5/1883, p. 4.

59 Y, 7/9/1883, p. 4.

60 Y, 21/12/1883, p. 10.

61 Y, 14/12/1883, p. 5.

62 C. Hursthouse, An Account of the Settlement of New Plymouth in New Zealand, London, 1849, p. 3.

63 HS, 3/3/1883, 3/10/1883; Y, 27/2/1885, p. 11; Egmont Star, 7/3/1885, p. 5.

64 HS, 16/7/1885, 5/10/1885, 10/12/1885.

65 HS, 8/10/1885.

66 HS, 20/5/1886.

67 H.G. Philpott, A History of the New Zealand Dairy Industry, 1840–1935, Wellington, 1937, pp. 65–6.

68 Ibid., p. 24.

69 [Wickham], Ramblings by A Tramp, p. 21.

70 TH, 26/4/1880.

71 TH, 24/6/1880.

72 W.K. Hulke, Golden Rules for Butter Making, New Plymouth, 1882, pp 15–16.

73 HS, 28/4/1883.

74 HS, 13/11/1884, 19/3/1885.

75 AWN, 19/5/1883, p. 6.

76 Ibid.

77 Y, 1/6/1883.

78 HS, 26/6/1883.

79 HS, 10/9/1883.

80 Arnold, ‘Community in Rural Victorian New Zealand’, p. 15. Philpott, History of the New Zealand Dairy Industry, overlooks Fischer's pioneering enterprise at Normanby.

81 AWN, 3/11/1883.

82 Philpott, History of the New Zealand Dairy Industry, pp. 59–60.

page 302

83 Y, 27/2/1885, p. 11, 6/3/1885, p. 4.

84 HS, 2/9/1885.

85 Philpott, History of the New Zealand Dairy Industry, p. 59.

86 Patea Mail, 12/7/1886, 11/8/1886, 16/8/1886.

18 The Settlers' World

1 Lawrence Stone, The Past and Present Revisited, London, 1987, pp. 85–6.

2 Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism 15th—18th Century, Volume II: The Wheels of Commerce, New York, 1982, pp. 458–60.

3 Alan Mulgan, Home: A Colonial's Adventure, London, 1934, p. 6.

4 Ibid., p. 7.

5 Weekly Herald (Wanganui), 5/2/1870, p. 2.

6 Rollo Arnold, ‘North Island Education, 1871–1877: “The Great Leap Forward”’, New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 8, 2, Nov. 1973, pp. 112–31.

Rollo Arnold, ‘North Island Education, 1878–1882: “Filling the Gaps”’, New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 9, 2, Nov. 1974, pp. 112–31.

Rollo Arnold, ‘The Wellington Education Board 1878–1901: Grappling with Educational Backwardness and Advancing Settlement’, ANZHES Journal, 6, 2, Spring 1977, pp. 43–55.

Rollo Arnold, ‘Women in the New Zealand Teaching Profession, 1877–1920: A Comparative Perspective’, in R. Openshaw and D. McKenzie, eds, Reinterpreting the Educational Past, Wellington 1987.

Rollo Arnold, ‘The Patterns of Denominationalism in Later Victorian New Zealand’, in C. Nichol and J. Veitch, eds, Religion in New Zealand, Wellington, 1980, pp. 76–110.

7 Wakefield, New Zealand after Fifty Years, pp. 46–7.

8 Miles Fairburn, ‘The Rural Myth and the New Urban Frontier: an Approach to New Zealand Social History, 1870–1940’, NZJH, 9, 1, April 1975, pp. 3–21.

9 Clayden, Popular Handbook to New Zealand, p. 214.

10 Brewer, ‘Starting a Farm at Cardiff’.

11 Graeme Wynn, ‘Pioneers, politicians and the conservation of forests in early New Zealand’, Journal of Historical Geography, 5, 2, 1979, pp. 171–88.