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Ethnology of Manihiki and Rakahanga

The Calendar

page 218

The Calendar

Nights of the Moon

The lunar month (marama) was divided into nights of the moon. Commencing with the new moon, each night received its own distinctive name, which came to denote the size or stage of the moon on a particular night. A night name could not be transferred to a night when the moon was not in the stage denoted by the name. The Rakahangan list of nights of the moon contains 30 names and is divided into two divisions. In the first division (Ohiro), consisting of 17 nights, are the nights when the moon is rising to its zenith (te au po e rewa ai te marama). In the second, consisting of 13 nights, are the nights when the moon is getting darker (te au po o te kau pouri).

The notes on the nights of the moon gathered in Rakahanga were obtained from the writings of an old man named Haumata-tua, who recorded them in a ledger now in the possession of Aporo of Rakahanga. The names as spelled in this manuscript are given in table 16. The actual night names without the introductory particle ko or the definite articles te, ti, or ta, with the pronounced h and wh inserted, are given in parentheses.

Table 16. Rakahangan Nights of the Moon, First List
Te au po o te Ohiro (The Nights of the Ohiro)

1.

Te atu (Atu)

2.

Te tutai (Tutahi)

3.

Te turoto (Turoto)

4.

Tamatea tutai (Tamatea tutahi)

5.

Tamatea turoto

6.

Tamatea akaoti (Tamatea whaka- oti)

7.

Ko Tiooata (Hoata)

8.

Ko Tiari (Ari)

9.

Kote korekore tai (Korekore tahi)

10.

Ko Uune (Hune)

11.

Ko Tioau (Ohau)

12.

Ko Tamaaru (Maharu)

13.

Ko Tiotua mua (Otua mua)

14.

Ko Tiotua muri (Otua muri)

15.

Ko Tiotu (Hotu)

16.

Ko marangi (Marangi)

17.

Te etau maro (Whetau-maro)

Te au po o te Kaupouri (The Nights of the Darkening Period)

18.

Rakau tai (Rakau tahi)

19.

Rakau roto

20.

Rakau akaoti (Rakau whakaoti)

21.

Korekore tutai (Korekore tutahi)

22.

Korekore roto

23.

Korekore akaoti (Korekore whaka-oti)

24.

Tangaroa tutai (Tangaroa tutahi)

25.

Tangaroa roto

26.

Tangaroa akaoti (Tangaroa whaka-oti)

27.

Ko Tirongonui (Rongonui)

28.

Ko Tane (Tane)

29.

Ko Te mauri (Mauri)

30.

Ko Te mutunga (Mutunga)

page 219

The name Atu applied to the 1st night is peculiar to the list. The name Tutahi (first) given to the 2nd night is followed by Turoto, meaning “inner.” The 4th, 5th, and 6th nights form a group of Tamatea which are distinguished by the qualifying terms tutahi (1st). turoto (inner), and whakaoti (to finish, last). The triple grouping with the same qualifying terms is used three times in the second half of the month with the Rakau, Korekore, and Tangaroa nights. It is evident, therefore, that Tutahi and Turoto, as applied to the 2nd and 3rd nights, are qualifying terms applied to a triple group of which the last of the series is missing, for it is not logical to use the middle term turoto unless it is followed by a whakaoti. The group name has been dropped.

A widespread commencement consists of Tireo (1st), Hiro (2nd), and Hoata (3rd). With dialectical letter changes, this commencement is found in Tahiti, Tongareva, and Cook Islands. It is present in New Zealand, but in most lists from that area Tireo and Hiro (Whiro) change positions. Hawaii, like New Zealand, commences with Hiro (Hilo) but drops Tireo altogether and places Hoata (Hoaka) as the 2nd night. A list collected by K. P. Emory from Fagatau in the eastern Tuamotus gives Hiro as the 1st night and Hoata as the 2nd. From the distribution in the marginal areas of New Zealand, Hawaii, and the eastern Tuamotus, it would appear that the Hiro commencement is older and that Tireo has changed places with it in the central eastern area. Localities that do not now have the Hiro commencement are the Marquesas, Mangareva, and Rakahanga. It is evident, however, that Rakahanga once had knowledge of it but that Atu or Atua has displaced Hiro, which, in the form of Ohiro, came to be used as a term for the first 17 nights, and that Hoata has been displaced to the 7th night.

A widespread group that appears early in the first half of the month is the Hamiama trio. Stimson (24, pp. 327–328) in a Tahitian list gives a group of three Hamiama, qualified by tahi (1st), roto (inner), and fa'aoti (last), which follows the Tireo triple commencement and immediately precedes a group of three Tamatea. Rarotonga (32, p. 356), after the Tireo commencement, has two Amiama immediately preceding two Tamatea. Tongareva (29, p. 216) has the Tireo commencement followed by three Samia, which immediately precede three Tamatea. The Samia of Tongareva corresponds to Hamia or Hamiama with the final syllable dropped. In the Fagatau list Hiro and Hoata are followed by three Hamia, which in turn precede three Tamatea. It may, therefore, be inferred that in Rakahanga the Tamatea group, by being displaced to the 4th, 5th, and 6th nights, has also pushed up a triple Hamiama group ahead of it. The Hamiama group dislocated Hiro (1st) out of list, and Hoata (2nd) fell back immediately below the last Tamatea. Somehow or other, Atu took up the place of Hiro, which page 220 left only two nights (2nd, 3rd) for the Hamiama trio. This resulted in the dropping of the last member (Hamiama whakaoti). In the course of time the group name was forgotten or dropped, and Hamiama tutatahi and Hamiama turoto now appear as Tutahi and Turoto for the 2nd and 3rd nights.

The dislocation of an earlier commencement by the Hamiama group is shown in other areas. For the Marquesas, Handy (14, p. 348) gives a list of three Maheama which occupy the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th nights; the Marquesan 1st night is Tu. In Mangareva, according to Williams (32, p. 355), the 1st to the 4th nights form a group of four Maema. Maheama and Maema are dialectical forms of Hamiama.

Considerable confusion is apparent in the names of the first half of the month. The 7th night is the displaced Hoata of the Hiro commencement. The 8th night, Ari, has a wide distribution. The 9th night, Korekore tutahi, is a single representative of a Korekore group, which is present in the first half in both Tahiti and Rarotonga. The retention of the qualifying term tutahi (1st) shows that it was originally the first of a group. The 10th night, Hune, is the widespread Huna of other areas, which, in most, falls on the 10th. In the 11th night, Ohau, if what is evidently a prefixed “o” is removed and hau transposed, we have Hua, a widespread term which is usually about two nights later. The 12th, Maharu, is widespread and generally on the same night. Two Otua (Atua) follow on the 13th and 14th, but most other areas have only one Atua. The 15th, Hotu, coincides in name and date with other areas. The 16th, Marangi, has the same name and date in Tongareva, Tahiti, and Rarotonga, but Whetau-maro, 17th, is evidently a local name which has replaced Turu. It will be noted that the 16th and 17th are regarded as nights of the full moon and are added to the first half so that the second period of the kau pouri, consisting of 13 nights, covers the decrease in the size of the moon.

After the confusion of the first half, the stability of the second half is all the more marked. It coincides in every particular with the Rarotongan list and differs from Tongarevan and Tahitian lists only in transposing the positions of the Rongonui (27th) and Tane (28th) names.

page 221

Table 17. Rakahangan Nights of the Moon, Second List

1.

Te Mutunga

2.

Tiatua

3.

Tuatahi

4.

Tuatahi-rua

5.

Tuatahi-toru

6.

Tamatea-tuatahi

7.

Tamatea-turua

8.

Tamatea-tuturo

9.

Tehari

10.

Korekore

11.

Tehune

12.

Tiohua

13.

Temahari

14.

Tihotuamua

15.

Tihotuamuri

16.

Tihowhotu

17.

Te marangi

18.

Whetau-maro

19.

Rakau-tahi

20.

Rakau-rua

21.

Rakau-toru

22.

Korekore-tahi

23.

Korekore-rua

24.

Korekore-toru

25.

Tangaroa-tahi

26.

Tangaroa-rua

27.

Tangaroa-toru

28.

Te Tane

29.

Te Rongonui

30.

Te Mauri

After naming Te marangi (17th), the reciter of the list remarks, “Kua tae ki te kau poiri.” (The dark period is reached.) After the Mauri (30th), an explanation is offered, “The mutuanga Tiatua ka vero no te Ohiro.” (The end of the Tiatua commences the Ohiro.) The first part (evidently to the Marangi) is headed, “te tatauanga po o te Ohiro” (the counting of the nights of the Ohiro).

This list has evidently been badly mutilated in the course of time. A significant item is the transference of Te mutunga (the end) from the 30th night to the 1st with the subsequent dislocation of the otherwise consistent second half. Thus the first of the Rakau group, which, over a very wide distribution, occurs on the 18th, is displaced to the 19th and all following names are displaced a night later so that the Mauri, which should be on the 29th, ends the list on the 30th. The transference of Te Mutunga to the first night of the moon has doubtless been due to the confusion which arose between the months which had 29 nights and 30 nights respectively. Savage considers from the remarks added to the list that the nights were divided into two periods termed Tiatua and Ohiro. The Manihikian dialect uses ti as an alternative to the definite article te, so that Tiatua is really the Atua. The Atua period corresponds to the Kau-poiri period of the second half. The statement that the end of the Atua commences the Ohiro points to a memory of Hiro commencing the month as in the Maori and Hawaiian tables. Unfortunately, both Mutunga and Tiatua have been confused as names for the 1st and 2nd nights and Hiro, or Ohiro, has been transferred to a name for the first half. The term Atua here takes the place of Atu in the first list and is probably more nearly correct. The utter confusion is indicated by the use of Tuatahi (1st) for the 3rd night and the terms Tuatahi-rua and Tuatahi-toru (2nd-1st and 3rd-1st) for the 4th and 5th nights, which is absurd. It page 222 is again evident that a group name has been forgotten. From the position preceding the Tamatea group, the group was again probably the Hamiama series.

Another variation in the second table is the use of the numbers rua (2) and toru (3) to designate the last 2 of a group of 3 instead of roto (inner) and whakaoti (last) as used in the first table. In the second table Tane (28th) and Rongonui (29th), if brought back to the 27th and 28th, occupy the order and dates which occur in New Zealand and Hawaii as well as Tahiti, which, with the mention of Ohiro, would indicate that the second table represents an older series than the first table. If so, it may also be assumed that tahi, rua, and toru as applied to triple groups are older than the use of the forms tahi, roto, and whakaoti.

Confusion is also evident in the 14th, 15th, and 16th nights, which, as Ti-hotu-mua, Ti-hotu-muri, and Ti-ho-whotu, are all forms of Hotu, which is found but once in lists from other areas.

In spite of the confusion in names and their sequence, the Rakahangan lists show a marked affinity with eastern Polynesian lists and they have not one name in common with Samoa and Tonga.

The Annual Cycle

The Rakahangan cycle contained 13 named months (marama). These were grouped into three periods in one classification and into two in another. A list was also given of the weather conditions, appearance of stars, and their relationship to food. An attempt was also made to correlate the native cycle with the European calendar months which may be regarded as merely approximate. The recorder solved the disparity in numbers by dividing the European month of May into two and apportioning a part to the two months, Pipiri and Whakaau. Unfortunately the order of these two short months is transposed in one of the three lists recorded.

The three-period classification (Table 18) was divided as follows: A, “te tau o te mata tonga” (the period or count of the Mata tonga); B, “te pouri” (the darkness); and C, “te au po” (the nights). A further explanation runs, “Tera tatahi ingoa o te mata tonga, na riri o te tonga.” (There is another name for the mata tonga, the wrath of the south wind.) The period of the mata tonga contained six months (e ono marama). Each of the six names is prefixed by the article ko, which simply indicates the proper name of the month. Before commencing the list with the first name, Pipiri, the following was written in the Aporo manuscript: “Te akaauanga o Matariki.” Aporo explained the meaning of akaauanga (pronounced “whakaauanga”) as, “The six stars of the Pleiades could be seen plainly.” In other words, it referred to the reappearance of the Pleiades. The dark period has page 223 three months (a teru ona marama). With the last two months of the dark period the definite article te is used. The nights period contains four months all prefixed by the article te.

Table 18. Rakahangan Annual Cycle, Three-period Classification
A. The Period Of The Mata Tonga
 1. Ko Pipiri (?) May (15 days) Te matangi, te ua, whatitiri; te takaanga o Matariki ki raro Wind, rain, thunder; the Pleiades are low in the sky
 2. Ko Unuunu June Matangi rahi (puwai) Strong wind
 3. Ko Oro-a-manu July Maru te matangi, kua kopia e Paroro Wind calms down, being inclosed by Paroro
 4. Ko Paroro-mua August Te taenga o te ika tomore ki runga i te whenua The tomore fish arrives
 5. Ko Paroro-muri September Kua humaria te matangi, kare e whatitiri, kare e ua The wind has ceased, no thunder, no rain
 6. Ko Muriha October Kua humaria te rangi, kua humaria te tai The heavens are calm, the sea is calm
B. The Dark Period (pouri)
 7. Takaonga November Whakaahu te whenua The land is prepared (for food)
 8. Te Hiringa kerekere December E marama kino A bad month (winds)
 9. Te Hiringa ma January Kua ta ma te whenua, Te kite anga mai o tetahi tangata, ko Whaniu, e hetu The land is swept clean, the appearance of a person, Whaniu, a star
C. The Night Period (au po)
10. Te Utu-a-mua February Kua kitea tetahi hetu, ko Tautoru, matangi tau tika, noho ki roto A star, Tautoru, appears. The wind remains set between the whakarua and tonga points of the compass (roto)
11. Te Utu-a-muri March Te angaanga tei roto ia Te Apura, ka hakatere taua hetu i te matangi o te Pouri. Ka kitea hoki te rewanga o Matariki i roto i a ia The work is with the star Te Apura, which drives away the wind of the Pouri period. The Pleiades are also seen high in the sky
12. Te Rehu April Ko te topa hanga o Matariki The Pleiades descend (in the sky)
13. Te Whakaau (?) May (15 days) Ko te haka hua te kai; te ruiruinga o Matariki Food grows; the Pleiades are sown

The second classification into two groupings was recorded by the same person after the three-period groupings. In the two-period classification the recorder gave the names of the English months, which in his opinion corresponded with the native moons. He met the difficulty of placing the extra native month by dividing May and giving 15 nights to Pipiri and 15 to Whakaau. At the same time he transposed the order of these two half- page 224 months from that which he had previously given in the three-period classification. The native text is quoted in full, as it contains remarks about the Pleiades which are significant (Table 19).

Table 19. Rakahangan Annual Cycle, Two-period Classification

Te tau marama a to tahito.

“No Hahake mai te tau marama. Na Erengai i ka tnai te tuaroa i karangaia e to tahito e hitu ia marama. Tera tona tikaanga e ono marama e te wahanga.” (The count of months according to the ancients. From Hahake came the count of months. Erengai brought [ka] or instituted the tuaroa [long period], which was said by old people to consist of seven months. The meaning of this is six months and a part of one.)

“Te tuapoto kua karangaia e to tahito e ono marama. Tera tona tikaanga e rima marama e te wahanga.” (The short period [tuapoto] was said by the old people to comprise six months. The meaning of this is five months and a part of one.)

Te tuaroa
Te Takaonga November
Te Hiringa-kerekere December
Te Hiringa-ma January
Te Utua-mua February
Te Utua-muri March
Te Rehu April
Te Pipiri May (15 days)
Te tuapoto
Whakaau May (15 days)
Unuunu June
Oroamanu July
Paroro-mua August
Paroro-muri September
Muriaha October

The long period (tuaroa) thus comprises the Pouri and Au po periods of the previous classification. The month names follow the same order except that Pipiri has displaced Whakaau in following the April moon, Te Rehu. The following remarks are made concerning Pipiri: “Te Pipiri 15 po no May. Te takahanga ia Matariki ki raro.” (Pipiri has 15 nights belonging to May. The Pleiades are situated low in the sky.) With regard to Whakaau in the short period the recorder states, “Te Whakaau 15 po no May. Koia te ruiruinga ia Matariki.” (Whakaau has 15 nights belonging to May. In this [month] is the sowing of the Pleiades.) It will be observed that the short period corresponds with the period of the mata tonga except that Whakaau has changed places with Pipiri.

Of two lists copied by Savage from the book of Aporo-ariki of Manihiki, one is identical with that already given in the two-period classification, but the other (Table 20) differs in some of the names and their sequence and in the omission of the 13th name, Pipiri. In this different list, each month is given a star with the expression, “Tona etu i runga ko….” (Its star above is….) The sequence of the list in Table 19, commencing from Whakaau, is shown in parentheses in the second column of Table 20.

page 225
Table 20. Twelve-month Cycle, Comparison and Stars
Month Name Sequence (Table 19) Star
1. Akaau Whakaau (1) Matariki (Pleiades)
2. Kauunu Unuunu (2) Takurua
3. (Missing)
4. Reu Te Rehu (12) Au-ma-Tangaroa
5. Manu Oro-a-manu (3) Vero-mata-utoru
6. Paroro-mua Paroro-mua (4) Ika-vaerua
7. Paroro-muri Paroro-muri (5) Ngatarava
8. Iringa-te-rangi Hiringa-ma (9) Tuaika
9. Iringa-kerekere Hiringa-kerekere (8) Ngana-kau-kupenga
10. Kautua-kerekere (Utua-mua) (10)
(Utwa-muri) (11)
Uapoe
11. Takaonga Takaonga (7) Teruapa
12. Miria Muriaha (6) Tautoru

After the total lack of any correspondence with the western nights of the moon, it is surprising to find that some of the month names correspond to those of Samoa (22). Of these, the two most significant are Paroro-mua and Paroro-muri. In Samoa the palolo is an edible marine worm that appears at the end of the second or beginning of the third quarter of the lunar month that includes October. It is thus a definite period in the Samoan calendar. This marine worm does not appear in Manihiki and Rakahanga. The Paroro month names must have had a western origin. The star of the first Paroro month is Ika-vaerua which means “spirit fish” or “fish without a material body.” As the paroro came from the sea, it could be spoken of as an “ika.” It may be that the memory of a fish associated with the first Paroro month has led to the local naming of a star that was visible in that month.

Aporo-ariki's list supports the tuapoto division of the two-period classification in placing Whakaau as the first month, followed by Unuunu. The further definite statement that the Pleiades (Matariki) (Table 21) are seen in Whakaau also proves that in the three-period classification Pipiri and Whakaau have been transposed in sequence, and the remarks concerning the Pleiades go with the month names. Whakaau should thus be the first month at the beginning of the Mata-tonga period and Pipiri the 13th month at the end of the Au-po period.

page 226
Table 21. Observations Regarding the Pleiades in a Sequence of Four Months Ending with Whakaau
Native European Observation Translation
Month Month (?)
Utua-muri March Te rewanga o Matariki The Pleiades are high in the heavens
Te Rehu April Te topahanga o Matariki The Pleiades descend
Pipiri May (part) Te taka anga (or takahinga) o Matariki ki raro The falling of the Pleiades below (the horizon)
Before Whakaau Te whakaauanga o Matariki The Pleiades are seen as a group
Whakaau May (part) Te ruiruinga o Matariki The sowing of the Pleiades

From astronomical observations it is known that the Pleiades are fairly high in the evening sky in the month of March, and they get lower and lower during April. E. H. Bryan informs me that in Hawaii, for the year 1931, they were last seen in the evening sky on May 7. They were in conjunction with the sun on May 20 and were not seen again until June 5, when they reappeared in the eastern sky before sunrise. The sequence of the appearance of the Pleiades as given in the above table was thus based on practical observation and fixes the times of the native months, but the European months given are only approximate, as the lunar months do not agree with calendar months. The lunar month which was divided between Pipiri and Whakaau covers part of May and part of June.

Any doubt as to the sequence between Pipiri and Whakaau is settled by the following from Aporo-ariki's book:

1. Akaau te marama, tona etu i runga ko Matariki. Tera te tako:
“Matariki e—Matariki pu—Matariki tu—
Matariki i tokerekere ia 'i te mata o Avatea.
Ko koe ra te mata-ono kapua ki te rangi,
Te vaine i taka ia'i ite rua o te ra Tuanuku tue i marie.
Ko koe ra e te etu mata-ono.”

1. Whakaau the month, its star above is the Pleiades. There is the chant:
O Pleiades—Pleiades pu—Pleiades tu
The Pleiades which sparkle on the face of the Dawn.
You are the six-eyed cloud in the sky,
The woman who descended into the pit of the sun beyond the earth but emerged scatheless.
You are the six-eyed star.

It is clear that the whakaauanga or morning rising of the Pleiades in June was the guide to the commencement of the year, in the month of Whakaau. The morning rising of the Pleiades is the only definite sign given by which the annual cycle of months could be inaugurated. Other stars are mentioned with each month, but they were merely seen in those months and there are no details concerning their appearance or disappearance as with the Pleiades. No mention is made of the Pleiades in the November-December period, so that the evening rising of that constellation was of no significance in the Rakahangan calendar. After Whakaau was inaugurated page 227 by the morning rising of the Pleiades on approximately June 5, the tau marama or sequence of months followed automatically with the rising of each new moon. From an astronomical point of view, the morning rising of the Pleiades in June is much more definitely defined than the evening rising in November. In May the Pleiades disappear and cannot be seen at any time of the night. Their reappearance in June in the eastern sky before sunrise is thus the reappearance of that which was lost and is hailed with singing and dancing. According to the chant, the Pleiades represent the woman who descended into the pit of the setting sun in the west and who, after traveling around the tua-nuku (back of the earth), emerges again in the east scatheless after her great adventure and with her six eyes sparkling on the face of the dawn.

The Rakahangan Intercalation

Both the native recorders, Haumata-tua and Aporo-ariki, in endeavoring to reconcile the Rakahangan 13-month cycle with the 12 European calendar months, wrote that though the old people (to tahito) stated that the long season consisted of 7 months, the meaning was 6 months and a part, and the short season of 6 months meant 5 months and a part. They then divided the calendar month of May between the two months Pipiri and Whakaau, giving each 15 days. In the use of the term May it may be inferred that the lunar month of May-June was meant. If, however, a full month of 30 days was divided regularly between two of a series of 13, and the remaining 11 were lunar months, the result would be a regular cycle of 12 lunar months with no system of intercalation. Such an interpretation is untenable.

As the short month, Pipiri, precedes Whakaau, it must commence with the new moon after the previous regular lunar month of Te Rehu, in which the Pleiades are descending. In Pipiri the Pleiades either sink below the western horizon or have disappeared. The following Whakaau month is indicated by the rising of the Pleiades, and as Pipiri is a short month, Whakaau cannot very well wait for the next new moon on all occasions. The problem is the division between Pipiri and Whakaau so that a system of intercalation may be possible. An indication is obtained from a statement by Best (2, p. 12) which shows that a similar system was known in New Zealand in addition to the one more widely used:

Tutakangahau, of Tuhoe, clearly explained the fact that in the Mataatua district the appearance of the Pleiades on the eastern horizon before sunrise was the sign awaited as a token of the new year. He made a peculiar statement that looks as though the year in that district commenced, or sometimes commenced, in the middle of the lunar month. If this was so it was a very singular procedure. He remembered that each month had thirty nights, but that the first month, Pipiri, had fifteen nights only “of its own,” its other fifteen nights formed half of the second month, Hongonoi. Hongonoi was composed of these fifteen nights and fifteen others “of its own.” The third and following months were made up in a similar manner. Unfortunately, I lost the oppor- page 228 tunity of obtaining further light on the subject, and so am still in the dark as to what the old man meant. He was a man of much knowledge, and the most trustworthy of authorities on old-time lore.

These remarks support the Rakahangan statements. Though Pipiri was the 1st month in the Maori calendar and the 13th month in the Rakahangan, they were both months evidently in the lunar month of May-June. In the Rakahangan calendar the rising of the Pleiades ended in the Pipiri month, and in the Mataatua calendar of New Zealand it commenced the Pipiri. It is significant that the Maori 13th month was also known as Te tahi-o-Pipiri.

As a working hypothesis based on the Rakahangan observations concerning the Pleiades, it is held that the morning rising of that constellation ended the Pipiri month and commenced the Whakaau. The Pleiades descend from the western sky on about May 7, which is in the month of Te Rehu. This is borne out by Table 22, except in the intercalated years. The next new moon after Te Rehu is taken as the commencement of Pipiri, which continues to June 4, whereas Whakaau commences with the morning rising of the Pleiades on approximately June 5 and finishes out the lunar month. In Table 22 the new moon commencements of the lunar months are given and, in parentheses, the number of days in Whakaau and Pipiri.

Table 22. Rakahangan Annual Cycle of 13 Months.
NUMBER MONTH NAME 1927–8 1928–9 1929–30 1930–1 1931–32
1. Whakaau June 5(12) June 5 (2) May 28(29) June 5 (11)
2. Unuunu June 17 June 7 June 26 June 16
3. Oroamanu July 17 July 6 July 25
4. Paroro-mua Aug. 15 Aug. 5 Aug. 24
5. Paroro-muri Sept. 14 Sept. 3 Sept. 22
6. Muriaha Oct. 13 Oct. 2 Oct. 21
7. Takaonga Nov. 12 Nov. 1 Nov. 20
8. Hiringa-kerekere Dec. 12 Dec. 1 Dec. 20
9. Hiringa-ma Jan. 11 Dec. 31 Jan. 18
10. Utuamua Feb. 9 Jan. 29 Feb. 17
11. Utuamuri Mar. 11 Feb. 28 Mar. 19
12. Te Rehu April 21 Apr. 9 Mar. 30 Apr. 18
13. Pipiri May 19(17) May 9(27) Apr. 28(30) May 17(19)

In the cycle 1927–28 the last month, Pipiri, commenced with the new moon on May 19, 1928, and ran to June 4, making a month of 17 days. The 1928–29 cycle commenced with Whakaau on the rising of the Pleiades on June 5, 1928, and finished out the lunar month to June 16, thus giving Whakaau 12 days. Thus the Pipiri of the previous cycle and Whakaau divided a lunar month of 29 days between them in respective proportions of 17 and 12, and not 15 and 15. The last month of the 1928–29 cycle commenced with the new moon of May 9, 1929, and ran for the long period of 27 days before the Pleiades rose. The Whakaau of the following cycle, 1929–30, thus had only 2 days before the next new moon rose to usher in page 229 Unuunu on June 7. The short Whakaau in 1929 led to the early commencement of the last month of the cycle on April 28, 1930, and Pipiri ran a full lunar month of 30 days without being stopped by the rising of the Pleiades. Nothing now remained but to commence the next cycle of 1930–31 with Whakaau on the following new moon on May 28, 1930. In this month the Pleiades rose on the 9th night, but the Whakaau month ran on the orthodox manner after the rising of the Pleiades to the end of the lunar month of 29 days. The intercalation thus consisted of bringing the two short months of Pipiri and Whakaau up to the value of two lunar months, when the Pleiades did not rise in the lunar month commenced by Pipiri. The principle is similar to the New Zealand method of adding a 13th month when the Pleiades do not rise in the 12th month of the cycle. The intercalation restored the balance between the lunar months and the seasons. At the close of the 1930–31 cycle, Pipiri and Whakaau again divided a lunar month between them. Pipiri closed the cycle with a month of 19 days, whereas Whakaau commenced the 1931–32 cycle with the remaining 11 days.

In Table 23 the range of the Rakahangan lunar months has been worked out in sequence over a cycle of 19 solar years. The range is estimated from the earliest new moon to the end of the lunation commencing with the latest new moon. The exceptions are in the 1st and 13th months.

Table 23. The Range of Lunar Months
Number Name CALENDAR Range Number Of Days Calendar Correlation Native Attribution
1. Whakaau May 26 to July 3 39 June (May)
2. Unuunu June 7 to Aug. 1 56 June-July (June)
3. Oro-a-manu July 5 to Aug. 30 57 July-Aug. (July)
4. Paroro-muri Aug. 3 to Sept. 28 57 Aug.-Sept. (Aug.)
5. Paroro-muri Sept. 1 to Oct. 28 58 Sept.-Oct. (Sept.)
6. Muriaha Oct. 1 to Nov. 26 57 Oct.-Nov. (Oct.)
7. Takaonga Oct. 30 to Dec. 26 58 Nov.-Dec. (Nov.)
8. Hiringa-kerekere Nov. 29 to Jan. 24 57 Dec.-Jan. (Dec.)
9. Hiringa-ma Dec. 28 to Feb. 23 58 Jan.-Feb. (Jan.)
10. Utua-mua Jan. 27 to Mar. 25 58 Feb.-Mar. (Feb.)
11. Utua-muri Feb. 26 to Apr. 23 58 Mar.-Apr. (Mar.)
12. Te Rehu Mar. 28 to May 23 57 Apr.-May (Apr.)
13. Pipiri Apr. 26 to June 4 40 May (May)

It is apparent that with the exception of split months and the intercalated 13th month, the month names in any Polynesian calendar have a range of 57 or 58 days in a cycle of 19 years. Some names, such as Takaonga, extend into three calendar months, as from October 30 to December 26. As, however, the month can only occupy two days of October at the most, October may be eliminated and the general grouping of Takaonga may be considered as November-December. The fallacy of attempting to identify page 230 the Polynesian lunar months with one calendar month is evident. They must be correlated with double calendar month names as given in the “Calendar Correlation” column of Table 23, except perhaps in the split 1st and 13th months which extend only 9 and 10 days over a full lunar month. In the “Native Attribution” column it is seen that Haumata-tua was correct as to his sequence of calendar months in so far as they agree with the first calendar months of the calendar range occupied by the native lunar months. The mistake in Whakaau is due to splitting the calendar month of May, when it was the lunar month range of May-June that should have been divided, May going to the 13th month, Pipiri, and June to the 1st month, Whakaau, of the next cycle.

It will be observed that at different periods in a 19-year cycle the second calendar month of one lunar month will become the first calendar month of the succeeding lunar month. Thus Paroro-mua (August to September) will at one period be in the calendar month of September and at another period the next lunar month of Paroro-muri (September to October) will also be in September. The coming of the tomore fish is associated with Paroro-mua; but if the fish comes regularly in the calendar month of September, the result will be, from a native point of view, that the tomore arrives in some years in Paroro-mua and in others in Paroro-muri. Such occurrences may have constituted one of the factors which led to variation in the sequence of similar lunar month names in different localities.

The Rakahangan information establishes a hitherto unrecorded method of correlating the lunar cycle with the Pleiades year. It is known from various writings that the lunar cycle was used throughout Polynesia and that in most areas the appearance of the Pleiades in the morning or evening sky gave the sign for the commencement of the new year. None of the early writers who had the opportunity of obtaining information from Polynesian astronomers have recorded how the Polynesians corrected their annual lunar cycle to prevent a dislocation of the seasons. Best (2) has recorded that the Maori year commenced with the first new moon after the morning rising of the Pleiades. He recorded lists of cycles of 12 months and some of 13 months. Though he did not follow the matter up, it may be inferred from his work that when the Pleiades did not rise in the 12th lunar month of the cycle, the Maoris had to delay the commencement of the next cycle for a whole lunar month. This meant the addition of an extra lunar month to the 12-month cycle. The intercalation of a 13th month was decided not by mathematical calculations but by the simple rule that the new year could not start until the first new moon after the morning rising of the Pleiades. The rule of not commencing the new year until the first new moon after the astronomical sign applies equally well if the evening page 231 appearance of the Pleiades is taken as the sign. The strict observation of the rule would automatically lead to the intercalation of a 13th month in some cycles. Under this system, the usual year of 12 lunar months would consist of 354 days and at intervals a 13-month year of 383 or 384 days would prevent the dissassociation of the lunar month names with the seasons. The range of variation in the year was one lunar month.

The Rakahanga system, if I have analyzed the evidence correctly, differs in that the new year commenced on the actual morning rising of the Pleiades. This led to the splitting of a lunar month with the result that the calendar was a constant 13-month cycle though the lengths of the two split months varied. Though the two months were contiguous and split one lunar month between them, they did not belong to the same cycle, one being the last of one cycle and the other being the first of a new cycle. The total of the two split months in the same cycle amounts to more than a lunar month. The total taken over a period of 19 years ranged from 31 to 49 days. Thus in the Rakahangan system a correction was made every year and the number of days in a year ranged from 356 to 372. The Rakahangan year was never more than 9 days longer or shorter than the solar year, whereas the New Zealand year varied from 11 days shorter to 19 days longer. Rakahanga resembles New Zealand in observing the morning rising of the Pleiades. The Rakahangan system of the constant split 13th month is more accurate than the intercalated 13th month attributed to New Zealand, but there are indications that the split 13th month was also known in New Zealand.

Stars

The navigation stars (te vairanga kaveinga) were listed as follows by Stephen Savage from the manuscript of Aporo-ariki:

1.

Tauira-te-ao

2.

Tauira-te-marama

3.

Tauira-te-etu (hetu)

4.

Tauira-te-kaveinga

5.

Tauira-rangi-o-Avatea

6.

Etu-kura

7.

Ngamau

8.

Okianga

9.

Matanui

The term “kaveinga” means “direction to steer by,” and was consequently applied to the European compass when it made its appearance. A star is hetu but is written as etu by Aporo. Star 7 should be Nga-mahu or Na-mahu. An explanation given to me was, “E rua Mahu, e rua ata.” (There are two Mahu, with two shadows.) It was applied to the Magellan clouds which pointed out the direction in which to steer between Rakahanga and Manihiki.

Stars of the month are given in Table 20. The appearance of the Pleiades is given on page 226. Another list gives Tautoru as seen in the Utuamua month, Te Ahura in Utuamuri, and Whaniu as the main star of the Pouri period extending from November to January.