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The Maori Race

Chapter XV. Forts.—Weapons.—Tools.—Mana

Chapter XV. Forts.—Weapons.—Tools.—Mana.

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Forts.

Amaori village of old days was, if of importance, always a pa or fortress, although small temporary abodes might be made among the cultivations on lower lands. The positions were generally chosen for strategic purposes, and combined, if possible, the command of surrounding country with impregnability of site. Of course the more commodious they were, with access to water and means of communication, the more they were favoured as homes, but security was the primal necessity. For the purposes of observation and of the power obtained in hand-to-hand combat by the defence being conducted from the higher ground they generally occupied the summit of hills, and they thus had the advantage of fine views, a fact not without æsthetic value to the Maori mind. Pure air and good drainage resulting from dwelling on the hills had no little effect in preserving the health and stimulating the energy of this freedom-loving people.

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The Maoris were born military engineers and in their wars with the English showed by their rifle-pits and masterly system of entrenchments how quickly they could adapt their ideas to the necessities of modern fortifications, but in the ancient days such elaborate works of protection were unnecessary. They relied on natural defences, such as were afforded by steep cliffs, rapid rivers, deep swamps, etc., but supported these by artificial means for the erection or completion of which no labour was considered too great and much cleverness expended. The hill on which the pa stood was terraced, ditched, and palisaded. The outer ditch (awamate) was dug outside the principal palisade the posts of which, set closely together, were often of immense size and strength. The outer fence was composed of large trees firmly set; about every sixth post (tukumaru) was larger than the others and was carved into a grotesque human figure of a warrior (kahia), or the top was rudely shaped to resemble a man's head. A beautifully carved main entrance (waha-roa) occupied a position in the outer palisade. This outside fence was called peke-rangi and was the fourth in a very large pa, but generally the third, the second being the hukahuka, and the inner the kiritangata. There was a ditch (awakari or waikari) between each row of palisading, the earth from ditches being used for embankments (maiore). The posts of the palisades were not only sunk deeply and firmly into the ground but were bound together by strong forest vines. Egress was made in war-time through small loop-holes in the outer page 302 palisade and through sliding doors in the inner; such door being formed of a solid piece of wood, and was fastened with strong bars. Earthworks were sometimes thrown up within the pa itself, these serving not only to render the fort more difficult to take, even should the outer defences be passed, but also were of use to separate on sub-tribe from another and thus to prevent quarrels. Under the principal posts of the outer palisade the bodies of sacrificed slaves were buried at the time of the dedication or first occupation of the fort. Some of these forts (pa) were of immense extent. One of these known as Whaka-witi-ra in the Waiapu Valley, was a mile along its river-side fence. Te Uruhi, at Waikanae, was one mile in circumference, and another fort in the Pelorus Sound enclosed 12 or 15 acres.

There are very few examples to be found in New Zealand of fortifications other than this ditch and fence protection. A few walled pa existed in the South Island; one of immense extent, having three miles of defensive works. It is supposed to be the work of the Waitaha tribe, of which the proverb says, “Waitaha, swarming like ants.” In the North Island, at Koru, about nine miles south of New Plymouth, there is a fort whose walls are built of rubble-work run up in places to the height of 15 feet; all the smaller outworks are faced with stone taken from the Oakura River. On the Great Barrier Island, near Auckland, are to be seen the remains of stone forts; the stones are set without mortar, and in the rockiest places are of large loose stones. In this locality, too, the page 303 hill-slopes are terraced, and stone facings prevent the terraces from slipping, while all around are traces of old cultivation and settlement. The walls of enclosures are still standing straight and true, as if built by Europeans, but trees a foot in diameter are growing within the enclosures. Tree defences were seldom used, but one instance of such a fortress is in evidence. It was situated at Whaka-horo, near the present site of the town of Levin, about 30 miles north of Wellington. It was constructed in the tops of three fine trees of white pine (kahikatea: Podocarpus dacrydioides.) A platform, 50 feet from the ground, was laid upon beams resting in the forks of the trees, and on this platform houses were built within an encircling palisade. Upon the platform were kept piles of stones to be used as missiles, and stores of food and water were kept in the fort. The only approach was by ladders, which were hauled up on the approach of any enemy. Another unusual means of defence was to be found in the construction of artificial islands in lakes. An excellent example may be found in Lake Waiwiri (near Horowhenua, Wellington). This lake contains two islands, one natural, known as Papaitonga, and the other artificial. The former was fortified and held by about 800 people. The latter was made by driving piles into the bed of the lake. “Negroheads” were brought in immense quantities and cast between the piles till a mound level with the water was formed. Then from the kitchen - middens heaps of old mussel-shells, the refuse of past page 304 generations, were put upon the tufts of negro-heads, and then many canoe loads of negro-heads and rubbish till the island took shape.

The villages were kept clean by sanitary laws of exceeding strictness, for they were of a religious (tapu) character. The common latrine (paepae) was in as secluded a spot as possible, and was hidden from view by devices of creeping plants, etc. Often the edge of a steep cliff was used for this purpose, with a horizontal spar solidly set, on which the person using it had to creep out, an arrangement of danger in a gale.

Mention should be made that among the defences of a pa were towers (taumaihi) used not only for purposes of observation but for active hostilities against a besieging force. On these towers large stones were kept, in order that they might be hurled on the attacking warriors.1 In a sketch made many years ago the features of this kind of defence have been preserved, the drawing showing two wooden towers, one six and the other four stages high.2 Some forts had stages (puwhara) like balconies overhanging the main palisade; from these missiles could be hurled down on an attacking party.

The number of forts to be found in New Zealand argues the occupation of the country by a very numerous population. From the top of Mount Eden, for instance, hills that have been terraced as pa are to be seen on every hand. Mr. S. Percy Smith gives the names of 25 forts near Auckland, each with at least 500 people, and Mount Eden with 3,000. page 305 If we allow 15,500 population for these, it is, if anything, too few, for (counting out women, aged persons, young people and infants) not more than one-fifth would be fighting men; and 3,000 warriors were few to defend so many palisades and earthworks. No better idea of the number of pa could be obtained than by quoting the words of Mr. J. Cowan relative to different fighting stations on the small island of Mokoia in Lake Rotorua. He says:—“The several hilltops on the little island are crowned by the remains of old fortifications, relics of the days when might was right and the weakest tribe went to the wall and into the stomachs of the other fellows. At a spot called Paepaerau, a pretty little slope, overshadowed by groves of glossy green karaka and wharangi and mahoe trees, above the landing-place at the Maori village, there is to be seen a tawa tree, in whose trunk there is embedded, in a singular manner, the bones of a man, which were placed there some 70 years ago, since when the tree has quite encircled the bones. That Mokoia was thickly populated in past years is shown by a number of ancient pa and the cultivation-grounds at the foot of the hills. On the south-side of the tree-clad island stood Te Koutu village in olden times, and further eastward, toward the landing place, there stood, on a little hill now covered with karaka and karamu (coprosma trees), the pa known as Kaiweka, which overlooks the hot bath called Wai-kimihia, of romantic memory. Here it was that Tutanekai tootled on his little bone page 306 flute to Hine-moa across the lake. Then on the steep eastern face of the island stood in former days a large pa known as Pukurahi, which extended over a considerable area, and the old terraces, ramparts and ditches of which are still visible. This pa, like the other forts on the island, was easily taken by Hongi, for there was, it is said, only one musket on the island at that time, whereas Hongi and his Ngapuhi marauders had over 300 guns. On the top of a wooded hill looking over to the eastern side of the lake there once stood another strong palisaded pa called Rangiahua, and close by on the hill tops were the ancient strongholds of Tokanui and Puke-maire. On the north-east side stand the ruins of an old pa known as Tarawera-manu, which was established by Uenuku, the great founder of the Ngati-Uenuku-kopako tribe. On the north side, on the top of a steep fern-clad hill, my veteran guide pointed out the site of the celebrated Arorangi pa, the earthworks of which are overgrown by fern and tupakihi. It is worth noting that this name, Arorangi, is one of the numerous place-names which the Maoris brought with them from their old homes in the South Sea Islands, for it is a name of a village on the Island of Rarotonga. The chief of this pa was also named Arorangi, and he was head of the Kawa-arero hapu, who were attacked and killed several centuries ago by Uenuku's warriors, when they were all ngenge (weary) with much watching and fighting. These fights arose over the killing of Uenuku's dog, and it will be thus seen that on this little islet page 307 the people were sometimes at war with each other. The summit of the island is known as Te tihi-o-Tama-Whakaikai, and a steep rock face, called Taupiri, is a conspicuous object near the highest point. All the above-named strongholds were captured in 1823, when Hongi took the island, killed and ate about 700 of the defenders, and captured hundreds of slaves.”

One of the few remains in New Zealand having archæological interest is that of the great earth-mound in the shape of a lizard formed on the banks of the river Waitio. It was many yards in length and represented the lizard in a wriggling attitude. The Maoris carefully kept its outline scoured clean of weeds and bushes, as the English keep their celebrated “White Horse.” It was formed about 500 years ago, according to legend and genealogy, and was originally one of three, but two of these have disappeared.

In the South Island there are rude drawings in red and black on many of the overhanging rock shelters or shallow caves. They are said to have been executed by the Ngati-Mamoe tribe when taking refuge in these shelters from the hot pursuit of their enemies.

Weapons, Etc.

The native weapons (rakau maori) were primitive both in design and construction, but they were not only thoroughly adapted to the fighting genius of the race but were admirable in themselves whether we consider the simplicity of the materials used or the art often page 308 lavished upon their ornamentation and finish. They were sometimes valued by a standard that civilised men, used to seeing arms turned out by the thousand through the agency of machinery, would consider absurdly over-rated, but when it is remembered that the very greatest care and industry were lavished on the construction of a single weapon, and that also a particular character of an almost spiritual nature was associated with it if it had often been used in victorious combat, it will be acknowledged that value may be an entirely individual consideration in respect to such articles.

The principal weapon of a Maori warrior was the spear (tao). A short spear of from four to six feet in length was the almost invariable appurtenance of a chief when he “took his walks abroad” and consummate mastery of the weapon for guard and attack was one of the most important accomplishments. Although only made of a single piece of hard polished wood (manuka or akeake), and little better than a pointed rod, it was a formidable weapon in accustomed hands. A celebrated chief named Te Wahanui is said to have combined such skill with the spear with an almost herculean strength that he would drive his weapon through man after man, tossing each of the victims back over his head to be finished off by his followers. These light spears were used with deadly effect if the opposing force broke and fled, for then a swift runner would overtake one after another of the flying enemy and with a stab so disable the fugitive as to render him an easy prey for those page 309 coming after.3 A short spear (turuhi) or assegai about six feet long having a flattened head of two and a half feet in length resembling a metal spear-head was used by the Urewera but was almost wholly confined to that tribe. Sometimes the short spear was used as a dart and thrown by the hand, but the Maoris never showed the proficiency in this exercise exhibited by the Australian blacks or other savages with whom the spear is a true missile weapon. A very long spear (huata: but this name was given to other kinds of spear) was sometimes used. It was from 12 to 14 feet long but even 40 feet in length has been reached by this weapon, which must not be confounded with the bird-spear although of almost similar construction. It was made by hewing down the bulk of a straight manuka tree to the requisite slender proportion and was cut beautifully true. Sometimes it was handled by two or three men together, who would thrust it through the palisades of a beleagured fort (pa) from inside and drive it through the bodies of some of the attacking party, transfixing two or three. This spear had a round knob (purori) and a plume of dog's hair on the butt end. Some spears of this (huata) kind had the heads barbed with the terrible lacerating spines (hoto) of the stingray, a weapon well known in the Pacific both as spear-head and dagger.4 Another kind of spear (kaniwha) was barbed only on one side. The spear called puraka had three or four points like an eel-spear and was about eight feet in length. The koikoi was a spear about page 310 seven feet long with a double point; this was also called timata. A short spear (tete), the head of which would break off in a wound, was sometimes used in battle. This spear-head, like the tines of the puraka spear, was made of mapara, the resinous heart-wood of white pine (kahikatea). A variety of this spear (tete paraoa) had a head formed from the bone of the sperm-whale. It was deeply barbed and the head was fixed as usual in the tete, so as to break off in the body of a wounded person. The digging stick (ko) and the chief's staff (tokotoko) were also used as arms.5 A dagger (also tete) was a weapon of some tribes. This dagger was of bone, from about 10 inches to a foot long. The beautifully carved handle and rounded blade (like a stiletto) was in one piece. The blade was also carved and was deeply barbed backward towards the hilt. It was carried in a sheath (pukoro) made of closely woven flax. Sometimes one man carried several of these daggers in his waist-mat or girdle (maro).

The most beautiful of all Maori arms was the battledoor shaped weapon (mere), somewhat resembling a flat club, but which was not handled in the usual manner of a club. It varied from about 12 to 20 inches long, and was often of greenstone (jade or nephrite). A light thong (tau) was passed through a hole in the handle of the mere and looped round the holder's thumb. The blow generally given with the mere was a horizontal thrust straight from the shoulder at the temples of an enemy's fore-head. If the body of the foeman was grasped page 311 by the other hand the mere was driven up under the ribs or jaw; if the hair, the temple-blow was tried. Had the mere been used with the downward stroke a parrying blow might have splintered the edge and the labour of years be lost. The mere was usually carried in the belt and only used at very close quarters. It was highly valued, only as a rule used by chiefs, and some of these weapons had a long and romantic history. Mere of more common stone or of the bone of the whale were often to be seen. On occasions of solemn formality mere were exchanged by chiefs of opposite parties as a pledge of peace or amity.6 One famous mere, the Pahikaure of the chief Te Heuheu, was supposed to have the power of becoming invisible to anyone but its rightful owner. This mere had been taken from an enemy ages ago, and had five times been buried with ancestors. A greenstone adze (hohoupu or toki) with a beautifully carved handle and decked with feathers was also borne by chiefs as a badge of authority.7 The same name (hohoupu) is given to a sacred instrument only used in cutting out the heart from a human sacrifice. A bone or wooden weapon (kotiate), shaped somewhat like the mere but with lobed sides and broader, was sometimes used.8 The shape of the kokoti or patu was somewhat like that of the mere, but it had only one side convex, the outline of the other resembling a billhook; if it had the convex side lobed or notched like a kotiate it was called waha-ika. A short stick (karo) was occasionally carried for parrying spear thrusts.9 page 312 The quarter-staff or sword (taiaha or hani) was made of heavy hard wood. It served also the purpose of a spear, had properly named points and guards,10 and was essentially a chief's weapon of authority as well as of attack and defence. The most common length was about five and a half feet, but the taiaha always took the same pattern, the upper end being carved into the shape of a pointed tongue. Below the tongue and about four inches from the end was a circlet of the bright feathers of the parrot, and also little tufts of dog's hair.11 If the taiaha had no carved tongue it received the name of pou-whenua. Another weapon of authority or direction was the battle - axe (tewha-tewha or paiaka) made of bone or hard wood. It was about four feet long, pointed at one end like a spear, and having at the other a head shaped somewhat like an axe. The blow was not directed to fall with what with us would be the edge of the axe, but contact was made with the part of the head that was straight with the handle, the head merely giving weight to the blow. A large bunch of feathers was fastened to the lower curve of the axe-head, and the weapon (if not used for thrusting with the point) was generally more a baton of office than anything else, the waving of the feathered sceptre being a point of direction or centre of inspiration for the chief's followers. It was sometimes used by the director (hautu) of the time kept in canoe paddling. Wooden swords (ripi or patu-tuna) have been excavated in New Zealand. They were without guards, and with blade and page 312a Take Take, Wanganui. page 313 handle in one piece; shorter than the ordinary sword of an infantry officer. They probably belonged to the tribes dispossessed by the Maoris. Of clubs there are several varieties. One of wood, of a four-sided pattern was called patuki. 12 The club of greenstone was named onewa, and another of black stone okewa or kurutai. After the arrival of the Europeans long - handled tomahawks (kakauroa) and a short hatchet (patiti) became fashionable, but these are not true Maori weapons, the use of iron being formerly unknown.13

The chief cutting tool was a knife (miratuatini or mata-tuatini). It was made of wood and had inserted in the sides or edges the teeth of the Blue-shark (Tuatini: Carcharias brachyurus). The mira-tuatini was generally elaborately carved and its handle perforated to receive a thong.14 Sometimes sharp flakes of obsidian (matā) were inserted instead of shark's teeth, but the weapon was then more generally known as kautete or mata-kautete, and resembled a sword more than a club.

It is difficult to find out if the bow was ever used as a war weapon by the Maori. It was well known as a plaything for children, and the word widely spread as the name for the bow in the South Seas (fana or whana) is also a Maori word. There are very few traditional references to it. The Urewera tribe state that fiery arrows (pere) were thrown among the houses of their enemies by means of the bow (whana). There is a legend to the effect that in a battle between the Ngati-whatua and the Ngati-maru in the Thames Valley, page 314 bows and arrows were used. But it may be inferred from the absence of mention of such weapon in the oldest traditions that the bow was not in general use (if used at all) among the Maoris as a weapon of war.

For throwing spears to a distance the “throw-stick” (kotaha or kopere) was in favour in some districts. The “throw-stick” was a piece of wood from two to three feet in length, carved along its length and generally terminating in the shape of a clenched hand grasping a piece of cord. The arrow or spear (pere) was generally a rough piece of wood (manuka) deeply cut in behind the head so that it might break into a wound. A false head made of the wood of the tree-fern (ponga) sometimes was lashed to the shaft, this wood being poisonous inflicted a festering wound. The arrow was laid on the ground in the proper direction, with its head slightly raised on a piece of wood or stone. The cord of the throw-stick was then placed round the arrow in a half-turn, in such a way that when the throw-stick was jerked forward the line would run clear. A spear could be thrown quite 200 yards by means of this device, and sometimes a sheaf of such spears was thrown into an attacking party or an enemy's fort by two men, who, standing one on each side of the bundle would launch them forward by a synchronous effort.15 It is doubtful if the sling proper was used generally by the Maoris, although it is described as having served the purpose of throwing red hot stones among the inflammable houses of an enemy's village. The Urewera page 315 tribe used the ordinary sling, but they called it by the name (kotaha) usually bestowed on the throw-stick. Among other missile weapons may be mentioned a curious dagger of stone (kotaha-kurutai) which was cast by hand, and which had a cord attached, with which it might be recovered by the thrower.16 The attached cord (taura) for recovering was also sometimes fixed to a curved weapon (hoeroa) shaped somewhat like the sword (taiaha) but chisel-pointed and having the natural bend of the whale-rib of which it was made.17 Among the northern tribes the hoeroa was the cruel weapon used in the impalement of female prisoners. The Urewera hurled a staff (reti) double-pointed and barbed or notched at the sides. It was about three and a half feet long, and also recovered with a cord.18

Large wooden hooks (matau-tangata) each having a bone or stone barb were used as weapons. They were employed when it was desired to break up the solid form of an enemy's war-party. Three or four of the hooks were fastened to a rope and weighted with a stone at the end, then launched as one whirls and casts a fishing-line. Being suddenly jerked back a man or two was probably hooked and drawn out, this serving to break up the opponent's phalanx. A sharp stone (often flint) was tied to a cord and swung round before striking therewith. This was called korepa.

Sometimes, but rarely the old weapon of the Roman Retiarius was had recourse to by the Maori. The hand-net would be diverted from its use as a fishing apparatus and cast page 316 over the head of a foeman, who, enmeshed in its folds, would fall an easy victim to the blows of the short club. On one occasion at least in traditional history the large seine fishing-net was brought into play for a similar purpose by the chief Maru-tuahu.19 The war trumpet (pu, putara, putatara, tatara, tetere, putetere, puhaureroa, pukaea, etc.) was either made of wood or of the conch-shell (Triton variegatum). One form was a wooden trumpet with a conch-shell fixed at the end.20 The long war-trumpet made of totara wood was used for sounding alarms in case of war. The South Island Maoris had a trumpet that was worked like a trombone. It was usually made of tutu or mako wood, but sometimes of bone. It was “packed” with scraped flax delicately whipped round the tubing in a tiny flat plait of six strands. The large war-drum or war-gong (pahu) was a log of matai wood struck with a wooden beater, and giving a deep resonant note that sounded to a great distance. It was suspended from posts set high within the pa, and the drummer mounted on a stage to strike it.21

The shield proper was unknown, but a substitute was often used consisting of a pad (whakapuru-tao) worn on the arm as a guard against spear thrusts. Sometimes a garment was wrapped round the arm (this was called puapua), or a mat (pukupuku or puoru) made for the special purpose, this being first wetted. A “tortoise” was sometimes formed when attacking an enemy's pa by making a sapping shield (kahu-papa) to cover the advances of the war-party.

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Speaking of weapons generally, it may be said that they were viewed almost with reverence, and prayers were said over them before a fight. They had, so to speak, a personality, and could be insulted or reverenced as if a part of the owner. No cooked food might be brought near such an arm, unless as a means of destroying its efficacy, for to smear the point or edge of an enemy's weapon with cooked food was to render it innocuous, nay, to make it dangerous to its owner. The reason for this is more fully set out in the chapters on “Tapu,” but there remains a particular quality of a weapon that was called its mana. The word mana itself has no English equivalent, but it may be best rendered in this connection as “prestige,” that is, “influence derived from former achievements and from a confident expectation of future success.” If to this be added a spiritual influence, a kind of awe tinctured with fear of the supernatural power that had endowed the weapon, some idea of the mana it possessed may be acquired. If it had been the favourite weapon of a renowned warrior it had probably gained mana through the number of lives it had taken. It could, however, acquire mana by long descent through the hands of celebrated men (even if not itself famous in battle) and from being considered an ancestral relic; this sort of mana being also shared by antique ornaments and other decorations of famous chiefs. Of such valued descent is the famous axe Te Awhiorangi. This, says the legend, was, when the gods lifted the heavens from the earth, the axe page 318 with which The Props of Heaven were hewn and trimmed. Then through long generations of semi-celestial beings and dim ancestors it passed down to Turi, the chief of the Aotea canoe, who brought it to New Zealand from the Maori cradle-land, Hawaiki. Here again it passed through the hands of many generations, till it was lost, but was recovered again on the 10th December, 1887, its discovery being attended with thunder and lightning and other portents. Neither, however, the respect shown for a weapon because it has been the instrument of much bloodshed and victory nor that conferred by historical or legendary association can be compared with the depth of feeling exhibited towards certain weapons in which mana of a spiritual or divine character resided, such character being a species of “mediumship,” or power of communication with the unseen world. Thus, the taiaha of Te Hinatoka was regarded as having magical or prophetic powers, and the tribe of Ngatiporou was accustomed to consult it before going into battle. After the necessary incantations had been recited the “fore-seeing” sign would be waited for. If the taiaha turned slowly over, then the omen was favourable, and success would follow; if it remained still the expedition was abandoned. This weapon had a fighting mana also; if used in single combat its wielder was invariably the victor. Matuakiore, a taiaha belonging to the Ngati-Maniopoto tribe, also gave omens, the principal of these being a flash from the feather circlet when the enwrapping mats were withdrawn, a page 319 sign of life and success to the invokers; but if the feathers looked dull and sombre it was an omen of defeat.22 The mana possessed by the mere of Te Heuheu has been above mentioned, and consisted in the weapon being invisible to any but the rightful owner.

Tools, Etc.

The most valuable of Maori tools was the stone axe (toki) in some shape or dimension, for with its aid trees were felled, or partially felled, and thus was commenced the clearing of forest for agriculture, the preparation of timber for canoes or habitations, and the carving or other adornment of the many utensils and adjuncts of social life. It seems difficult to define where the line should be drawn between a stone and the ruder form of axe, for the tool has low forms differing little from rough flakes of stone. Thence it rises through all degrees of excellence of workmanship and in every variety of lithic material, from the palœolithic to the neolithic stage, till it takes shape in the well-ground axe, truly proportioned and admirably adapted to its work.

The largest-sized axe (toki titaha or toki whakapae) was very heavy, even up to 14 lbs. or 15 lbs. weight, and was fastened to the end of a long pole, the axe-head being set with its longest axis straight with the pole, and the whole used as a battering ram. A ring was punched in this manner all round the tree, then another a few inches above it, and the page 320 intermediate chips knocked out. The smaller axes (panekeneke, toki-hangai, and patiti) were generally set as adzes (kapu), the wooden handles being shaped so as to hold the stone-blade securely. The axe-head was firmly lashed to the handle round the amai or back part. It is said that Rupe, the brother of Maui, first taught the use of the stone axe (ure or toki), and his directions were to make the handle (kakau) in the shape of a man's leg and foot, the axe-head being fastened to the sole (kapukapu) of the wooden foot.

Long narrow axes were used as chisels (whao) or gouges, and, being lashed long-wise to a handle, were struck with a piece of wood as a mallet. Very small axes, especially those used for delicate carving, were sometimes held in the hand and were without a handle. Sometimes these were of jade, but are to be found in almost any kind of stone that would take a cutting - edge. The war - axe (toki-hohoupu) was borne by chiefs more as an emblem of authority than as a weapon.23

When a sharp cut had to be made, such as in trimming the hair, or in slashing the body (in sign of mourning), a flake of quartzite or obsidian (tuhua) was employed, as a stone tool could not be ground to an edge keen enough for the purpose. A mussel (kuku) shell or other bivalve shell was also used for a similar purpose on occasion. Both the obsidian and the shell were used as planes (waru) to scrape and polish a wooden surface.

A kind of stone file or saw (kani) for cutting stone and a whetstone or hone (hoanga) page 321 were among the lesser Maori tools. Wooden wedges (kahi, matakahi, ora) were in use for splitting timber. The fern-pounder (paoi) was a small wooden club; the maul (ta) was useful for driving stakes.

The principal agricultural tool was the digging-stick (ko), this being a pole or shaft of hard wood from seven to ten feet in length, with a step or foot-rest (hamaruru) lashed on about a foot from the end that entered the ground, this end being pointed or with an edge at foot and sides. The ko was sometimes used as a weapon. It was held in both hands when used for digging with and forced into the ground with the left foot. The loosened earth was removed with spades (called by many different names, rapa, kaheru, tihou, puka, tikoko, hapara, hoto, etc.) or broken up smaller with a pick-axe (keri-whenua or tima), a hoe (kara-one), a weeding stick (koko), or a rake or a scratcher (rakuraku). A small thin tool used in prodding for fern-root was called tokitoki. The shell (angatupa) of a large bivalve (Vola lalicostata) was used for cutting across the runners of convolvulus roots used for food.

Mana.

I have mentioned the word mana in describing the powers, etc., supposed to reside in famous weapons, but the peculiar properties supposed to reside in mana have a far wider range than association with visible objects. In human beings it had really a religious basis, it was born with great chiefs as part of their god-inheritance, but—it could be lost. It page 322 could also be greatly strengthened: it was not exactly success in battle, or acquisition of power and lands, or repute for wisdom, but the possession of these was a sign of the indwelling of mana. Its outward form might be what we vaguely call good luck, genius, reputation, etc., but it might also be recognisable in high courage, lofty social position, personal influence, etc., in fact the man possessing great mana was “the darling of the gods.”

The owners of lofty mana were never very numerous, for in the nature of things it could not be common or its value would have weakened. Its highest powers lay in the region of the supernatural. For instance, it was related that when a certain chief, living a few years ago near Mount Ruapehu, led his men from their villages, whether for war or for a peaceful visit, thunder would peal out even from a cloudless sky. This was hereditary mana, for this chief's ancestors had likewise always been favoured with this proof of celestial relationship. So strongly was the belief accepted not only by the tribe but by the chief himself that on the occasion of a great meeting of the clans over a piece of disputed land, he dared the opposing party to move out with him and his followers to the place, and offered to relinquish his claim if the portent did not follow his action. Incidentally, I may remark that his challenge was accepted, and a heavy thunderstorm was the result! “Now,” said the triumphant chief to his drenched and downcast opponents, “who dares to deny my mana over this land?”24

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Mana was shown when a man undertook to do an unusual and almost impossible thing and yet succeeded. If, after a course of happy issues, defeat should follow, it was because some religious observance had been disregarded. It was not always necessary to be of noble birth to possess mana; the child of a slave could by great daring, influence and good fortune rise to be a dreaded chief or noted councillor. Some of the records of the courage, strength and ferocity of these mana-possessing (whai-mana) warriors almost exceed belief.

Chiefs possessing mana were very jealous of their dignity and would often brood over some tiny slight (perhaps unintentional slight) till they could repay the fancied injury with bloodshed. This was the reason that war was so frequent, and, when one considers the innumerable points of etiquette to be observed and the often fiery nature of the persons concerned, wonder no longer arises that fighting was almost a second nature to the Maori.

If a chief went to visit some friends and they desired to do him honour, probably they would set out to try and catch fish, snare birds, etc., to feast him. If their efforts were unsuccessful, the fish not to be caught, the birds not to be snared or speared, then it must be that the chief's mana had preceded him and his fame had banished the weaker creatures.

Lands and localities were supposed to possess mana of their own, as well as men, weapons, etc. This influence when it pertained to land was on account of the spirits page 324 of famous men remaining on guard over them. If a man descended from, or related to one of these ancestors was in danger, he would feel much more security if he could reach such enchanted or sacred ground, feeling that in some miraculous way he would obtain succour. Efforts would be made when a fight was impending to force the battle over into such a locality so as to obtain the “tribal luck” (mana) of the place. Curious superstitions were also connected with these haunted or hallowed localities. Thus, any party of armed men having to pass across the Rangipo Desert, would carefully keep their eyes turned away from Mount Tongariro, lest the sight of that charmed volcano might bring up a snow-storm and blind their path.

When a chief took up unexplored or unappropriated land, the mana of the land became his. When he had divided such portions as he thought right among his people the mana of each piece went to its owner, and to the chief was left only the mana (mana rahi) of the unappropriated portion. That is to say the whole tribe possessed the mana of their tribal lands, but their highest chief had most as an individual.